Cattle husbandry

Home
Ethiopia
Adama
Cattle husbandry

Cattle husbandry Handling cattle in races with smooth walls, non-slip floors and gradual ramps · Not using sticks or Around the same time, the wild ass was being tamed in Egypt.

Best practice in cattle husbandry is an important aspect of running a beef business to meet animal health and welfare standards, and for optimum animal performance. Essential husbandry practices such as castration and dehorning allow stock to be safely reared and transported to market. Dehorning
Castration
Pain relief for husbandry practices
Calf and weaner management:
Weaning
Weaner supplements
Y

ard weaning and education
Early weaning
Calf rearing
Cattle vaccination:
Principles of using vaccines
Vaccinations for beef cattle
Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, selective breeding and the raising of livestock. Husbandry has a long history, starting with the Neolithic revolution when animals were first domesticated, from around 13,000 BC onwards, predating farming of the first crops. By the time of early civilisations such as ancient Egypt, cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were being raised on farms. Major changes took place in the Columbian exchange when Old World livestock were brought to the New World, and then in the British Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century, when livestock breeds like the Dishley Longhorn cattle and Lincoln Longwool sheep were rapidly improved by agriculturalists such as Robert Bakewell to yield more meat, milk, and wool. A wide range of other species such as horse, water buffalo, llama, rabbit and guinea pig are used as livestock in some parts of the world. Insect farming, as well as aquaculture of fish, molluscs, and crustaceans, is widespread. Modern animal husbandry relies on production systems adapted to the type of land available. Subsistence farming is being superseded by intensive animal farming in the more developed parts of the world, where for example beef cattle are kept in high density feedlots, and thousands of chickens may be raised in broiler houses or batteries. On poorer soil such as in uplands, animals are often kept more extensively, and may be allowed to roam widely, foraging for themselves. Most livestock are herbivores, except for pigs and chickens which are omnivores. Ruminants like cattle and sheep are adapted to feed on grass; they can forage outdoors, or may be fed entirely or in part on rations richer in energy and protein, such as pelleted cereals. Pigs and poultry cannot digest the cellulose in forage, and require other high-protein foods. The domestication of livestock was driven by the need to have food on hand when hunting was unproductive. The desirable characteristics of a domestic animal are that it should be useful to the domesticator, should be able to thrive in his or her company, should breed freely, and be easy to tend.[2]
Domestication was not a single event, but a process repeated at various periods in different places. Sheep and goats were the animals that accompanied the nomads in the Middle East, while cattle and pigs were associated with more settled communities.[3]
The first wild animal to be domesticated was the dog. Half-wild dogs, perhaps starting with young individuals, may have been tolerated as scavengers and killers of vermin, and being naturally pack hunters, were predisposed to become part of the human pack and join in the hunt. Prey animals, sheep, goats, pigs and cattle, were progressively domesticated early in the history of agriculture.[3]
Pigs were domesticated in the Near East between 8,500 and 8000 BC,[4] sheep and goats in or near the Fertile Crescent about 8,500 BC,[5] and cattle from wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan around 8,500 BC.[6]
A cow was a great advantage to a villager as she produced more milk than her calf needed, and her strength could be put to use as a working animal, pulling a plough to increase production of crops, and drawing a sledge, and later a cart, to bring the produce home from the field. Draught animals were first used about 4,000 BC in the Middle East, increasing agricultural production immeasurably.[3] In southern Asia, the elephant was domesticated by 6,000 BC.[7]
Fossilised chicken bones dated to 5040 BC have been found in northeastern China, far from where their wild ancestors lived in the jungles of tropical Asia, but archaeologists believe that the original purpose of domestication was for the sport of cockfighting.[8]
Meanwhile, in South America, the llama and the alpaca had been domesticated, probably before 3,000 BC, as beasts of burden and for their wool. Neither was strong enough to pull a plough which limited the development of agriculture in the New World.[3]
Horses occur naturally on the steppes of Central Asia, and their domestication, around 3,000 BC in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea region, was originally as a source of meat; use as pack animals and for riding followed. Camels were domesticated soon after this,[9] with the Bactrian camel in Mongolia and the Arabian camel becoming beasts of burden. By 1000 BC, caravans of Arabian camels were linking India with Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean. Ancient civilisations
Egyptian hieroglyphic of cattle
Milking cattle in ancient Egypt
In ancient Egypt, cattle were the most important livestock, and sheep, goats, and pigs were also kept; poultry including ducks, geese, and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them. The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish. Honey bees were domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, providing both honey and wax. In ancient Rome, all the livestock known in ancient Egypt were available. In addition, rabbits were domesticated for food by the first century BC. To help flush them out from their burrows, the polecat was domesticated as the ferret, its use described by Pliny the Elder.[12]
Medieval husbandry
Painting of shepherd with sheep
Shepherd with sheep in woven hurdle pen. Medieval France. 15th century, MS Douce 195
In northern Europe, agriculture including animal husbandry went into decline when the Roman empire collapsed. Some aspects such as the herding of animals continued throughout the period. By the 11th century, the economy had recovered and the countryside was again productive.[13]
The Domesday Book recorded every parcel of land and every animal in England: "there was not one single hide, nor a yard of land, nay, moreover ... not even an ox, nor a cow, nor a swine was there left, that was not set down in [the king's] writ."[14] For example, the royal manor of Earley in Berkshire, one of thousands of villages recorded in the book, had in 1086 "2 fisheries worth [paying tax of] 7s and 6d [each year] and 20 acres of meadow [for livestock]. Woodland for [feeding] 70 pigs. The improvements of animal husbandry in the medieval period in Europe went hand in hand with other developments. Improvements to the plough allowed the soil to be tilled to a greater depth. Horses took over from oxen as the main providers of traction, new ideas on crop rotation were developed and the growing of crops for winter fodder gained ground.[16] Peas, beans and vetches became common; they increased soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, allowing more livestock to be kept.[17]
Columbian exchange
Main article: Columbian exchange
Exploration and colonisation of North and South America resulted in the introduction into Europe of such crops as maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc, while the principal Old World livestock – cattle, horses, sheep and goats – were introduced into the New World for the first time along with wheat, barley, rice and turnips.[18]
Agricultural Revolution
Main article: British Agricultural Revolution
Lincoln Longwool Sheep
The Lincoln Longwool breed was improved by Robert Bakewell in the 18th century. Selective breeding for desired traits was established as a scientific practice by Robert Bakewell during the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century. One of his most important breeding programs was with sheep. Using native stock, he was able to quickly select for large, yet fine-boned sheep, with long, lustrous wool. The Lincoln Longwool was improved by Bakewell and in turn the Lincoln was used to develop the subsequent breed, named the New (or Dishley) Leicester. It was hornless and had a square, meaty body with straight top lines.[19] These sheep were exported widely and have contributed to numerous modern breeds. Under his influence, English farmers began to breed cattle for use primarily as beef. Long-horned heifers were crossed with the Westmoreland bull to create the Dishley Longhorn.[20]
The semi-natural, unfertilised pastures formed by traditional agricultural methods in Europe were managed by grazing and mowing. As the ecological impact of this land management strategy is similar to the impact of such natural disturbances as a wildfire, this agricultural system shares many beneficial characteristics with a natural habitat, including the promotion of biodiversity. This strategy is declining in Europe today due to the intensification of agriculture. The mechanized and chemical methods used are causing biodiversity to decline. Traditionally, animal husbandry was part of the subsistence farmer's way of life, producing not only the food needed by the family but also the fuel, fertiliser, clothing, transport and draught power. Killing the animal for food was a secondary consideration, and wherever possible its products such as wool, eggs, milk and blood (by the Maasai) were harvested while the animal was still alive.[22] In the traditional system of transhumance, people and livestock moved seasonally between fixed summer and winter pastures; in montane regions the summer pasture was up in the mountains, the winter pasture in the valleys.[23]
Animals can be kept extensively or intensively. Extensive systems involve animals roaming at will, or under the supervision of a herdsman, often for their protection from predators. Ranching in the Western United States involves large herds of cattle grazing widely over public and private lands.[24] Similar cattle stations are found in South America, Australia and other places with large areas of land and low rainfall. Ranching systems have been used for sheep, deer, ostrich, emu, llama and alpaca.[25]
In the uplands of the United Kingdom, sheep are turned out on the fells in spring and graze the abundant mountain grasses untended, being brought to lower altitudes late in the year, with supplementary feeding being provided in winter.[26] In rural locations, pigs and poultry can obtain much of their nutrition from scavenging, and in African communities, hens may live for months without being fed, and still produce one or two eggs a week.[22]
Pigs in a barn
Pigs in an intensive system, Midwestern United States
At the other extreme, in the more developed parts of the world, animals are often intensively managed; dairy cows may be kept in zero-grazing conditions with all their forage brought to them; beef cattle may be kept in high density feedlots;[27] pigs may be housed in climate-controlled buildings and never go outdoors;[28] poultry may be reared in barns and kept in cages as laying birds under lighting-controlled conditions. In between these two extremes are semi-intensive, often family-run farms where livestock graze outside for much of the year, silage or hay is made to cover the times of year when the grass stops growing, and fertiliser, feed, and other inputs are brought onto the farm from outside.

15/08/2022

The massive improvement in food production, as a result of effective genetic selection combined with advancements in farming practices, has been one of the greatest achievements of modern agriculture. For instance, the dairy cattle industry has more than doubled milk production over the past five decades, while the total number of cows has been reduced dramatically. This was achieved mainly through the intensification of production systems, direct genetic selection for milk yield and a limited number of related traits, and the use of modern technologies (e.g., artificial insemination and genomic selection). Despite the great betterment in production efficiency, strong drawbacks have occurred along the way. First, across-breed genetic diversity reduced dramatically, with the worldwide use of few common dairy breeds, as well as a substantial reduction in within-breed genetic diversity. Intensive selection for milk yield has also resulted in unfavorable genetic responses for traits related to fertility, health, longevity, and environmental sensitivity. Moving forward, the dairy industry needs to continue refining the current selection indexes and breeding goals to put greater emphasis on traits related to animal welfare, health, longevity, environmental efficiency (e.g., methane emission and feed efficiency), and overall resilience. This needs to be done through the definition of criteria (traits) that (a) represent well the biological mechanisms underlying the respective phenotypes, (b) are heritable, and (c) can be cost-effectively measured in a large number of animals and as early in life as possible. The long-term sustainability of the dairy cattle industry will also require diversification of production systems, with greater investments in the development of genetic resources that are resilient to perturbations occurring in specific farming systems with lesser control over the environment (e.g., organic, agroecological, and pasture-based, mountain-grazing farming systems). The conservation, genetic improvement, and use of local breeds should be integrated into the modern dairy cattle industry and greater care should be taken to avoid further genetic diversity losses in dairy cattle populations. In this review, we acknowledge the genetic progress achieved in high-yielding dairy cattle, closely related to dairy farm intensification, that reaches its limits. We discuss key points that need to be addressed toward the development of a robust and long-term sustainable dairy industry that maximize animal welfare (fundamental needs of individual animals and positive welfare) and productive efficiency, while also minimizing the environmental footprint, inputs required, and sensitivity to external factors.

15/08/2022

Genetic selection is the main pillar sustaining continued and incremental improvements in milk production in dairy herds, which is paramount for supplying nutritious dairy products for a growing market. The increase in productivity has been accompanied by an alarming loss of genetic diversity, unfavorable genetic responses in multiple correlated traits, and reduced selection pressure in traits related to environmental efficiency, animal health and welfare, and overall resilience in comparison to performance traits. In this paper, we discuss the role of genetic selection in high-yielding dairy breeding schemes and potential routes toward the development of more sustainable dairy cattle farming systems.
Sustainable agriculture is paramount to address the major challenges facing humankind, including human demography and food security, climate change, energy use, biodiversity, and the environmental footprint of human activity. The current world population of 7.5 billion is expected to reach 9.8 billion people by 2050 (FAO, 2020). Human diets need to become healthier, more diversified, and better distributed across geographical regions and families with divergent economic incomes, as there are over 690 million undernourished people in the world (FAO, 2020) and obesity is rising in many regions across the globe. In this context, dairy products and ruminant meat provide essential amino-acids, minerals (calcium, zinc, selenium), and vitamins (A, B3, B6, B12, D), highlighting the fundamental importance of dairy farming for human agri-food systems.
There are currently more than 270 million dairy (or dual-purpose) cows in the world, with a global average milk yield of around 2 600 kg/cow/year. However, only 33 countries have a national average milk yield greater than 6 000 kg/cow/year (FAOSTAT, 2018; Fig. 1), which represents only a small fraction (~13%) of the world dairy cattle population but more than 40% of the total world milk. Yet, the strong focus of the dairy industry on ensuring food security through higher productivity raises concerns on other sustainability dimensions (Clay et al., 2020). This requires us questioning continued selection strategies for milk yield in populations (or countries) that have reached very high production levels, but simultaneous selection for productivity and functional traits (e.g. adaptation, welfare, resilience) should be applied in low-producing populations, especially in local breeds and developing-country populations.

15/08/2022

Always remember to either get somebody to hold the free end of the rope or tie the end using a quick release knot - if the animal goes down in the crush you will want to be able to release the knot (which may now be under tension) quickly!
Preventing kicking
There are several techniques which may be useful to prevent the animal kicking you (usually with the hind limbs):
The most common method used to prevent kicking is lifting the tail. Bending the tail and holding it sideways may discourage a mild kicker, but lifting the tail straight up is more likely to be effective for more painful procedures. This can be painful for the animal, and requires effort and concentration on the part of the assistant holding the tail!
Lifting the tail Lifting the tail
It is possible to tie the back legs together using a 'hobble' to prevent kicking to an extent. However, it may be difficult to remove the hobbles if the animal goes down for some reason.
Tying a rope around the animal with the rope passing over the transverse processes of the sacrum can be a very effective way of discouraging kicking, and does not require an assistant so is useful for lengthy procedures such as stripping out a mastitic quarter. Remember to tie off the loose end of the rope using a quick release knot.
Preventing kicking Preventing kicking
Remember that cows tend to kick with ther hindlimbs forward - so if you are standing next to her hind quarters she might decide to kick. It is more difficult for a cow to kick behind her - but by no means impossible, so don't assume you are safe when behind the animal
Appropriate restraint
With all restraint techniques it is crucial to ensure that the restraint is appropriate to the size and temperament of the animal you are dealing with - you would not examine a fractious bull without a very solid crush, but it is also not acceptable to force up the tail of a quiet animal 'just in case'. Small calves may best be restrained in lateral recumbancy rather than standing - this is usually quite well tolerated. You will also need to make sure the restraint is appropriate for the technique you are performing - non-invasive procedures such as auscultation of the rumen are more likely to be tolerated than procedures such as collecting blood, re**al examinations or opening the mouth. If you are planning to do something potentially painful, think about how the animal is likely to react.

15/08/2022

Rope restraints
There are several rope restraint techniques that may help you to safely examine animals.
Is a halter available? Even if the animal is in a crush, tying the animal's head to the side will give you easier and safer access to the jugular groove. Consider carrying your own halter around in your car - you can even make your own. Learn how to put a halter on correctly - farmers enjoy pointing out to a vet that a halter is on upside down so don't give them the satisfaction!
Use of a halter to give access to the jugular groove Use of a halter to give access to the jugular groove
Can you use a rope to restrain a limb either to help give you access to scan or auscultate the heart, or perhaps to prevent the animal kicking you?

15/08/2022

Is the headgate appropriate for the size of animal that you are working with? Is the width of the headgate adjustable?more information
What condition is the crush in? Are there broken restraint mechanisms or is some of the metalwork rusty?
Are there appropriate restraints for feet if you have been asked to examine them? A poorly maintained or badly equipped foot crush is potentially dangerous - if you don't think the equipment is up to the job, tell the farmer that you can't safely examine the feet!

15/08/2022

Cattle are large animals that can behave unpredictably, especially when they are not used to being handled. It is important to always bear this in mind, and to take all possible precautions to ensure your safety and the safety of those working with you. Appropriate restraint of the animal is central to this.
Crush
What facilities are available to you on the farm? Is there are crush that you can use to safely restrain the animal? Look for the following:
What is the access like? Are there doors that open up so that you can safely examine the animal without being trapped inside the crush with it?

15/08/2022

There are many variations for cattle restraint, including nose tongs or manual nose twitch which divert attention (as does the tail restraint), flank rope, hobbling, flanking and casting

28/05/2022

12/05/2022

LIGHTWEIGHT BUT POWERFUL CATTLE HOOF TRIMMING TOOLS
Discover HOOF BOSS, state-of-the-art cattle hoof trimming tools designed to perform intricate hoof procedures instead of high volume maintenance trimming. Weighing only 1.3 pounds, the HOOF BOSS is lightweight but powerful and can be used in the treatment of all kinds of laminitis issues including: ulcers, abscesses, white line lesions, and double soles. With precise and accurate cuts, the HOOF BOSS removes as little hoof as possible making the recovery period as short as possible.
HERE ARE THE REASONS DAIRYMEN AND HOOF TRIMMERS SHOULD CONSIDER THE HOOF BOSS:
REDUCES HOOF KNIFE USE
Our HOOF BOSS was developed specifically to provide the Dairymen and Hoof Trimmers a power option for doing preventative care and corrective cattle hoof trimming. The HOOF BOSS, utilizing chainsaw disc technology and replicates the actions of a manual hoof knife. The need for a manual hoof knife is diminished greatly. If you’re a dairyman and only trim a few cows, the HOOF BOSS is the perfect all-in-one trimmer for you, it can be used for low volume maintenance trimming, too.
PREPARE HOOVES & BLOCKS
An additional benefit in using the HOOF BOSS for corrective trimming can help in getting the hoof prepped for blocking. It can be used to roughen up hooves before applying glue and to modify wooden blocks for a better fit.
SHARPENS EASILY- STAYS SHARP
Unlike the manual hoof knife and nippers, the HOOF BOSS is easy for anyone to sharpen. It keeps its edge, so you’ll always get an easy and even trim. With the included diamond-coated chainsaw file you’ll save time too, as it only takes a couple of minutes to sharpen all four-tungsten carbide coated teeth.
PRECISE AND ACCURATE CATTLE HOOF TRIMMING EQUIPMENT
The HOOF BOSS precision and accuracy give you complete control over how much hoof you remove. You can perform the most specialized hoof care tasks and complete detailed procedures with ease with this safe, effective, and easy-to-use trimmer.

12/05/2022

Proper functional and therapeutic hoof trimming in dairy cattle can reduce and help prevent lameness in dairy cows and can also improve productivity and overall animal wellness. Research shows that cows with healthy, pain-free hooves stay in the herd longer, have higher milk production and generate more long-term profit.
The steps in this guide should only be done by properly trained personnel, so choose a highly-skilled hoof trimmer.
The Five-Step Dutch Hoof Trimming Method

12/05/2022

Hoof trimming plays a large role in the prevention of lameness in dairy cattle. The importance of preventing lameness is not only pertinent to the welfare of the cow, but it has economic implications as well. Lameness has been estimated to cost $185 per clinical case in first lactation cows and $333/case in mature cows 2. Hoof trimming renders the herd less susceptible to structural lameness as well as bacterial-caused lameness as a structurally sound hoof will be less susceptible to bacteria harbored in manure slurry. Understanding the right time to trim cows and if it was done properly are important factors in maintaining healthy hooves.
What is considered to be normal hoof growth? The bovine hoof grows at a rate of approximately 2 inches per year. Weight bearing in the normal hoof occurs on the outer h***y portion. When weight-bearing is shifted from this area, lameness becomes common 1.
When should I trim? Twice yearly hoof trimming is typically appropriate; however the presence of infectious diseases can increase the need for hoof trimming as trimming may help alleviate some of the pain associated with these diseases (commonly digital dermatitis- also known as hairy heel warts). Disease-causing bacteria are often present in manure slurry. For hooves with overgrown toes, a heel with compromised structure will be more susceptible to bacterial invasion as it will be in contact with more slurry.
Semi-annual trimming serves as a mandatory maintenance trimming, while trimming after the onset of lameness serves as a form of corrective hoof trimming. Over-trimming however, can be destructive to the structural stability of the hoof as pe*******on of sensitive tissues below the h***y wall can cause pain and render the cow lame. The normal hoof should be 3 inches long from the coronary band (the junction between skin and hoof) to the toe tip. The sole wall should be 0.25 inches thick. 4.
How can I implement hoof trimming on my farm? One common practice is to hoof trim at dry-off and then again at 100 days in milk 1. However, trimming twice yearly during any part of the year is acceptable. Record-keeping is key to maintaining proper trimming procedures and to ensure that every cow is trimmed.
How can I analyze my hoof trimmer? The goal of hoof trimming is to provide a flat surface for weight-bearing. This flat surface redirects intensive weight-bearing on the sole and distributes it evenly across the h***y surface. Effective hoof trimmers will keep this goal in mind. To further evaluate a hoof trimmer, it is important to question if the trimming was necessary in the first place. As previously mentioned, unnecessary hoof
trimming can cause more harm than good. Cows who are not due for a trimming, should be evaluated and then returned to the herd (the aforementioned 3 inches/0.25 inches rule should be used when evaluating). Hooves of this length, should not be trimmed. Hoof walls that are a considerable amount longer or shorter than this value place stress on various muscles in the leg and can eventually lead to sole ulcers. Speaking to your hoof trimmer about how he determines when to trim can confirm that you both are in agreement on trimming criteria.
A higher toe angle (approximately 52 degrees) may result in more structural soundness as well as lowered susceptibility to infectious diseases, such as foot rot 3. A hoof trimmer should consider this on farms that are dealing with a high incidence of infectious hoof diseases. The same study also concluded that differences in heel heights could contribute to the presence of ulcers. Unless special circumstances are present (for example, the practice of "blocking" or placing a block under one toe for the purpose of weight alleviation on the corresponding toe) hoof trimmers should equalize digit height. An ideal heel will be 1.5 inches from hairline to sole 5.
Hoof trimming is commonly an after-thought on many farms. Trimming is not completed in a timely manner and often trimmers are unqualified. Maintaining a trimming schedule as well as evaluating the quality of the hoof trimmer can decrease lameness and therefore increase milk production.

11/05/2022

Method
The method of dehorning should be matched to the size of the horn and the age of the animal for optimum effectiveness. The key to successful dehorning is the removal of a complete ring of hair (~1cm wide) around the horn base. The level of skill of the operator and personal preference for a particular method will also be a consideration. There is no one method for a particular animal age or horn size.
1. The dehorning knife
Dehorning knife
The dehorning knife has a curved blade designed to remove about 1 cm of skin around the horn bud. It is ideal for calves (up to 2-3 months of age) with a mobile horn bud i.e. not attached to the skull. The procedure is very quick and there is no regrowth if the job is done properly. It is essential to take around 1 cm of skin around the horn bud. The knife must be kept sharp. The dehorning knife will give excellent results with practice. Dehorning calves with a knife minimises tissue damage and avoids exposing the sinus cavity. Once the bud has grown solid to the skull a small scoop dehorner may be a better choice.
2. The dehorning iron
The use of dehorning irons does not result in an open, raw wound. Dehorning irons are made like number ‘O’ branding irons and can come in a variety of sizes but usually have a diameter of 50 mm. The iron must be approximately 1 cm bigger than the horn bud all around. The hot iron is placed over the horn bud and the surrounding tissue and twisted a few times. This technique ensures that the blood supply will be seared off and the horn bud area will die and drop off. This technique is only suitable for calves up to about 2 months, because the horns become too big for the dehorning iron .
3. Scoop dehorners
Scoop dehorner
Scoop dehorners are used by passing them vertically down the horn and pushing the handles outward thereby scooping out the horn. As with other methods the head of the animal must be well restrained. Scoop dehorners come in a number of sizes and it is important the right size instrument is used on the appropriate animal. The larger size scoop dehorners can leave a deep hole if used on too smaller animal, but are useful for weaners and older cattle.
4. Cup dehorners
Cup dehorners
Calves that are too big to dehorn with a knife, hot iron or scoops can be dehorned with cup dehorners, which will handle cattle up to 12 months of age. Again it is necessary to take a complete ring of skin around the horn base.
5. Guillotine dehorners, surgical wire, horn saw and tippers
Dehorning tools
Guillotine dehorners, surgical wire, horn saw and tippers are used on adult cattle with larger horn growth and should only be used for tipping.
Horn saws, parrot teeth tippers and surgical wire should only be used to tip the horns of adult cattle i.e. remove only the insensitive part of the horn. If used to remove more horn, or dehorn cattle, these instruments should then only be used by a veterinarian, or under the direction of a veterinarian. Local anaesthetic should be used. Dehorning cattle over 12 months of age is not recommended and is illegal in some states.
Tipping as compared to dehorning does not reduce bruising.
Treatment after dehorning
Animals bleed freely after dehorning. This is normal and helps to clean the wound. However, bleeding should be minimised by selecting the appropriate dehorning tool, preventing overheating of calves and allowing them to settle after mustering.
Fly strike is a problem when animals have an open wound but if dehorning is carried out in a hygienic manner, wounds heal up quickly. Do not apply an insecticide straight on the wound, but rather around the wound. Wound disinfectants can be applied to the wound to reduce infection risks.
Avoid leaving animals in the yard after dehorning.
Put dehorned stock onto good nutrition.

11/05/2022

Why dehorn?
Dehorning is the removal of the horns from cattle. It is a labour-intensive, skilled operation with important animal welfare implications. Horns are detrimental to cattle from a welfare and production perspective, and pose a potential safety risk to cattle handlers. Dehorning should only be done when necessary and in accordance with the Australian Animal Welfare Standards and Guidelines for Cattle to minimise the risk to the welfare of the cattle, particularly pain and distress. Breeding polled cattle is a long-term solution to the problems commonly associated with horned cattle and the issue of dehorning.
Bruising costs the Australian beef industry over $30 million each year – equivalent to $4 for every beast slaughtered. Evidence indicates that the single major cause of bruising is the presence of horns.
Horned or tipped cattle (as compared to hornless cattle):
Can cause injury to other cattle especially in yards and when in transport
Can cause significant damage to hides and carcase quality
Cause more damage to infrastructure on average
Need more space during transport
Harder to handle in yards and crushes and can be more aggressive to other animals
Potentially more hazardous to people.
Tipping (removal of the insensitive sharp end of the horn) is not dehorning. It does little to reduce the disadvantages of having horned cattle, for example it does not reduce bruising, and tipped cattle can still be a danger to other cattle and handlers.
Hygiene
Good hygiene (facilities, hands, handling and instruments) is very important to prevent infection after dehorning. Disinfectant should be used and changed frequently.
Muddy and dusty yards, wet days, dirty equipment, high fly activity are all factors which lead to infection.
All equipment should be cleaned thoroughly after use.
Age
The younger the animal at the time of dehorning, the better it is for the animal and the easier the job for the operator. There is less pain and stress for the animal and there is less risk of infection or fly strike the smaller and younger they are, particularly if they are going back to their mothers. Smaller animals are also much easier to handle and restrain.
Removing horns from older cattle, yearlings and adults is time consuming, painful for the animal and increases the chances of a setback. It is not recommended to dehorn animals over 12 months of age unless undertaken by a veterinarian and is illegal in some states and territories.
Pain relief
According to the Australian Animal Welfare Standards and Guidelines for Cattle pain relief must be used when dehorning, unless cattle are:
1. less than six months old or
2. less than 12 months old if at their first yarding and where the later age is approved in the jurisdiction (state or territory legislation).
Condition of the animal
Dehorning is not recommended when an animal is in poor condition, or if it has other health problems. In this case the animal should be dehorned when it is in better health/condition as it will heal more quickly.
Anatomy of the horn
The horn core is a bony extension of the skull and the hollow centre of the core communicates directly with the sinuses of the skull. The horn grows from the skin around its base, just as the wall of the hoof grows down from the skin of the coronet. To ensure no horn regrowth, it is essential to cut away 1cm of skin around the base of the horn.

11/05/2022

Using Dentition to Age Cattle
We've all heard the saying "Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth!" The latest information from Japan is suggesting that the Japanese Agricultural Ministry is considering a change to their blanket testing policy on animals. They are considering eliminating testing on animals younger than 20 months of age. We hear the United States trying to push this line to 24 months of age.
Differentiating age of cattle is easily done at six-month intervals all the way to 30 months of age. Dentition is the means of doing so and is the commonly accepted standard since BSE has become a substantial livestock-related problem. We receive many questions on this issue and the purpose of this summary is to provide producers and industry with a better understanding. The following article has been adapted from information published by the USDA.
Tooth Types and Location
There are three types of teeth found in the bovine: incisors, premolars and molars. Incisor teeth are found in the rostral (front) portion of the mouth, but they are absent from the upper jaw. The premolars and molars (known as cheek teeth) are found in the caudal part of the mouth and are present in the upper (maxilla) and lower (mandible) jaws. At birth, calves have deciduous (temporary, milk, baby) teeth. The deciduous teeth are lost as the animal ages and they are replaced by the permanent teeth.
Eruption Times of Permanent Teeth
Teeth Age at Eruption
First Incisor (I1*) 18–24 months
Second Incisor (I2) 24–30 months
Third Incisor (I3) 36 months
Fourth Incisor (I4 or C) 42–48 months
First Cheek Tooth (P2*) 24–30 months
Second Cheek Tooth (P3) 18–30 months
Third Cheek Tooth (P4) 30–36 months
Fifth Cheek Tooth (M2*) 12–18 months
Sixth Cheek Tooth (M3) 24–30 months
* I = Incisor P = Premolar M = Molar
Deciduous (Temporary) Incisors versus Permanent Incisors
Temprorary Incisors vs Permanent Incisors
The deciduous incisors (Di) are much smaller than the permanent incisors. The crown (that part of the tooth that is covered with enamel) of the deciduous incisors are more narrow than the permanent incisors and they diverge more from the base (at the gum line) of the tooth to the apex when compared to the permanent incisors. Figure 1 compares the mandibles (lower jaws) from a young animal with deciduous incisors (black arrow) to an older animal with permanent incisors (white arrow). The difference in tooth size and shape and jaw width (and size) can be appreciated.
Using Teeth to Age Cattle
Cattle dentition is generally used as an indicator of age when actual birthdates are not available. Eruption times and wear of the teeth are the major factors used to estimate bovine age. The definition of eruption is the emergence, pe*******on or piercing of the tooth or teeth through the gingiva (the gum line).
An animal at 14 months of age would have a full set of deciduous incisors. All four pairs of teeth are temporary and firmly in place. The teeth are short, broad and usually have a bright, ivory color. There is usually space between the Di1 incisors. Other incisors may touch on the inside corner at the top of the tooth (Figure 2).
As the animal ages, the deciduous teeth become loosely set in the jaw, especially the central two incisors. The teeth appear longer and narrower (Figure 3) than in younger animals and the teeth may or may not be touching at the upper corners. An animal with this dentition is approximately 15 to 18 months of age old.
Using teeth to age cattle.
a permanent central (I1) incisor has erupted. Temporary incisors may or may not be present when the permanent incisor erupts.
The permanent incisors usually erupt at an angle (Figure 5) and straighten into a definite pattern with growth. In Figure 5 both central (I1) incisors have erupted. They may or may not be in straight line with the incisor corners touching.
The central incisors are in place in Figure 6. They have straightened and the inside corners are in line. Animals with eruption of one or more central incisors are considered to be 18 to 24 months of age.
When one or both middle (I2) incisors erupted the animal is considered to be 24 to 30 months of age

08/05/2022

Malignant catarrhal fever, also known as bovine malignant catarrh, is a highly fatal viral disease of cattle that may cause sporadic outbreaks or epizootics. The disease in cattle is caused by a herpesvirus, and the sheep disease may be caused by a sheep herpesvirus. Ocular lesions are seen in the “head and eye” form of the disease, although four other syndromes have been described. The catarrhal inflammation of upper respiratory and alimentary mucous membranes aids in differentiating the disease from other fulminating bovine viral diseases. Keratoconjunctival exanthema and lymph node enlargement also occur. Ocular lesions distinguish malignant catarrhal fever from mucosal disease, rinderpest, muzzle disease, and infectious stomatitis.
The corneal lesions of malignant catarrhal fever start at the limbus and progress toward the center of the cornea, distinguishing them from infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis, which usually begins in the center of the cornea. In addition to the classic corneal lesions, severe bilateral uveitis and panophthalmitis occur (Figure 18-33) together with the high fever (40.5° to 42°C), depression, and mucosal erosions. The disease is almost always fatal over 24 to 96 hours. Ocular manifestations include severe bilateral uveitis, leading to ciliary injection, corneal edema, hypotony, miosis, iris congestion, and fibrin or hypopyon in the anterior chamber (see Figure 18-33). The choroid is usually spared, but retinal vasculitis is often present and blindness is possible. It is difficult to observe the retinal lesions in the living animal because of the lesions in the anterior segment. Histopathologic examination shows severe vasculitis in all major organs and all parts of the eye except the choroid.

22/04/2022

Blackleg is a fatal disease of young cattle. It produces an acute local infection, and the resulting blood poisoning leads to rapid death. The name 'blackleg' derives from the fact that the site of infection is often a leg muscle, and that the affected muscle is dark in colour. Occurrence of blackleg.

29/01/2022

Cattle husbandry

25/11/2021

Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys.[57]

All these animals have been domesticated over the centuries, being bred for such desirable characteristics as fecundity, productivity, docility and the ability to thrive under the prevailing conditions. Whereas in the past, cattle had multiple functions, modern dairy cow breeding has resulted in specialised Holstein Friesian-type animals that produce large quantities of milk economically. Artificial insemination is widely available to allow farmers to select for the particular traits that suit their circumstances.[58]

Whereas in the past, cows were kept in small herds on family farms, grazing pastures and being fed hay in winter, nowadays there is a trend towards larger herds, more intensive systems, the feeding of silage and "zero grazing", a system where grass is cut and brought to the cow, which is housed year-round.[59]

In many communities, milk production is only part of the purpose of keeping an animal which may also be used as a beast of burden or to draw a plough, or for the production of fibre, meat and leather, with the dung being used for fuel or for the improvement of soil fertility. Sheep and goats may be favoured for dairy production in climates and conditions that do not suit dairy cows.[57]

Meat
Hereford cow
The Hereford is a hardy breed of beef cattle, now raised in many countries around the world.
Main articles: Meat industry, Cattle, Sheep farming, Pig farming, and Cuniculture
Meat, mainly from farmed animals, is a major source of dietary protein around the world, averaging about 8% of man's energy intake. The actual types eaten depend on local preferences, availability, cost and other factors, with cattle, sheep, pigs and goats being the main species involved. Cattle generally produce a single offspring annually which takes more than a year to mature; sheep and goats often have twins and these are ready for slaughter in less than a year; pigs are more prolific, producing more than one litter of up to about 11[60] piglets each year.[61] Horses, donkeys, deer, buffalo, llamas, alpacas, guanacos and vicunas are farmed for meat in various regions. Some desirable traits of animals raised for meat include fecundity, hardiness, fast growth rate, ease of management and high food conversion efficiency. About half of the world's meat is produced from animals grazing on open ranges or on enclosed pastures, the other half being produced intensively in various factory-farming systems; these are mostly cows, pigs or poultry, and often reared indoors, typically at high densities.[62]

Poultry
Battery hens
Battery hens, Brazil
Main article: Poultry farming
Poultry, kept for their eggs and for their meat, include chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks. The great majority of laying birds used for egg production are chickens. Methods for keeping layers range from free-range systems, where the birds can roam as they will but are housed at night for their own protection, through semi-intensive systems where they are housed in barns and have perches, litter and some freedom of movement, to intensive systems where they are kept in cages. The battery cages are arranged in long rows in multiple tiers, with external feeders, drinkers, and egg collection facilities. This is the most labour saving and economical method of egg production but has been criticised on animal welfare grounds as the birds are unable to exhibit their normal behaviours.[63]

In the developed world, the majority of the poultry reared for meat is raised indoors in big sheds, with automated equipment under environmentally controlled conditions. Chickens raised in this way are known as broilers, and genetic improvements have meant that they can be grown to slaughter weight within six or seven weeks of hatching. Newly hatched chicks are restricted to a small area and given supplementary heating. Litter on the floor absorbs the droppings and the area occupied is expanded as they grow. Feed and water is supplied automatically and the lighting is controlled. The birds may be harvested on several occasions or the whole shed may be cleared at one time.[64]

A similar rearing system is usually used for turkeys, which are less hardy than chickens, but they take longer to grow and are often moved on to separate fattening units to finish.[65] Ducks are particularly popular in Asia and Australia and can be killed at seven weeks under commercial conditions.[66]

Aquaculture
Freshwater fish farm
Freshwater fish farming, France
Main article: Aquaculture
Aquaculture has been defined as "the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants and implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated."[67] In practice it can take place in the sea or in freshwater, and be extensive or intensive. Whole bays, lakes or ponds may be devoted to aquaculture, or the farmed animal may be retained in cages (fish), artificial reefs, racks or strings (shellfish). Fish and prawns can be cultivated in rice paddies, either arriving naturally or being introduced, and both crops can be harvested together.[68]

Fish hatcheries provide larval and juvenile fish, crustaceans and shellfish, for use in aquaculture systems. When large enough these are transferred to growing-on tanks and sold to fish farms to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include shrimps, prawns, salmon, tilapia, oysters and scallops. Similar facilities can be used to raise species with conservation needs to be released into the wild, or game fish for restocking waterways. Important aspects of husbandry at these early stages include selection of breeding stock, control of water quality and nutrition. In the wild, there is a massive amount of mortality at the nursery stage; farmers seek to minimise this while at the same time maximising growth rates.[69]

Insects
Crickets
Crickets being raised for human consumption, Thailand
Further information: Beekeeping, Entomophagy, Insect farming, and Sericulture
Bees have been kept in hives since at least the First Dynasty of Egypt, five thousand years ago,[70] and man had been harvesting honey from the wild long before that. Fixed comb hives are used in many parts of the world and are made from any locally available material.[71] In more advanced economies, where modern strains of domestic bee have been selected for docility and productiveness, various designs of hive are used which enable the combs to be removed for processing and extraction of honey. Quite apart from the honey and wax they produce, honey bees are important pollinators of crops and wild plants, and in many places hives are transported around the countryside to assist in pollination.[72]

Sericulture, the rearing of silkworms, was first adopted by the Chinese during the Shang dynasty.[73] The only species farmed commercially is the domesticated silkmoth. When it spins its cocoon, each larva produces an exceedingly long, slender thread of silk. The larvae feed on mulberry leaves and in Europe, only one generation is normally raised each year as this is a deciduous tree. In China, Korea and Japan however, two generations are normal, and in the tropics, multiple generations are expected. Most production of silk occurs in the Far East, with a synthetic diet being used to rear the silkworms in Japan.[74]

Insects form part of the human diet in many cultures.[75] In Thailand, crickets are farmed for this purpose in the north of the country, and palm weevil larvae in the south. The crickets are kept in pens, boxes or drawers and fed on commercial pelleted poultry food, while the palm weevil larvae live on cabbage palm and sago palm trees, which limits their production to areas where these trees grow.[76] Another delicacy of this region is the bamboo caterpillar, and the best rearing and harvesting techniques in semi-natural habitats are being studied.[76]

Effects

Environmental impact
Main articles: Environmental impact of livestock and Environmental impact of meat production
Cattle
Livestock production requires large areas of land.
Animal husbandry has a significant impact on the world environment. Being a part of the animal–industrial complex, animal agriculture is the primary driver of climate change, ocean acidification, biodiversity loss, and of the crossing of almost every other planetary boundary, in addition to killing more than 60 billion non-human land animals annually.[77] It is responsible for somewhere between 20 and 33% of the fresh water usage in the world,[78] and livestock, and the production of feed for them, occupy about a third of the earth's ice-free land.[79] Livestock production is a contributing factor in species extinction, desertification,[80] and habitat destruction.[81] Animal agriculture contributes to species extinction in various ways and is the primary driver of the Holocene extinction.[82][83][84][85][86] Habitat is destroyed by clearing forests and converting land to grow feed crops and for animal grazing, while predators and herbivores are frequently targeted and hunted because of a perceived threat to livestock profits; for example, animal husbandry is responsible for up to 91% of the deforestation in the Amazon region.[87] In addition, livestock produce greenhouse gases. Cows produce some 570 million cubic metres of methane per day,[88] that accounts for from 35 to 40% of the overall methane emissions of the planet.[89] Livestock is responsible for 65% of all human-related emissions of the powerful and long-lived greenhouse gas nitrous oxide.[89]

As a result, ways of mitigating animal husbandry's environmental impact are being studied. Strategies include using biogas from manure,[90] genetic selection,[91][92] immunization, rumen defaunation, outcompetition of methanogenic archaea with acetogens,[93] introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the rumen,[94][95] diet modification and grazing management, among others.[96][97][98] A diet change (with Asparagopsis taxiformis) allowed for a reduction of up to 99% of methane production in an experimental study with three ruminants.[99][100]

Animal welfare
Main article: Animal welfare
Since the 18th century, people have become increasingly concerned about the welfare of farm animals. Possible measures of welfare include longevity, behavior, physiology, reproduction, freedom from disease, and freedom from immunosuppression. Standards and laws for animal welfare have been created worldwide, broadly in line with the most widely held position in the western world, a form of utilitarianism: that it is morally acceptable for humans to use non-human animals, provided that no unnecessary suffering is caused, and that the benefits to humans outweigh the costs to the livestock. An opposing view is that animals have rights, should not be regarded as property, are not necessary to use, and should never be used by humans.[101][102][103][104][105] Live export of animals has risen to meet increased global demand for livestock such as in the Middle East. Animal rights activists have objected to long-distance transport of animals; one result was the banning of live exports from New Zealand in 2003.[106]

David Nibert, professor of sociology at Wittenberg University, posits that, based on contemporary scholarship by ethologists and biologists about the sentience and intelligence of other animals, "we can assume that, for the most part, the other animals' experience of capture, enslavement, use, and slaying was one of suffering and violence." Much of this involved direct physical violence, but also structural violence as their systemic oppression and enslavement "resulted in their inability to meet their basic needs, the loss of self-determination, and the loss of opportunity to live in a natural way." He says that the remains of domesticated animals from thousands of years ago found during archeological excavations revealed numerous bone pathologies, which provide evidence of extreme suffering:

Excavations from 8500 BCE revealed bone deformities in enslaved goats and cows and provided "some indication of stress, presumably due to the conditions in which these early domestic animals were kept." Remains of sheep and goats from the early Bronze Age show a marked decrease in bone thickness, reflecting calcium deficiencies "resulting from the combined effects of poor nutrition and intensive milking."[107]

In culture
Cartoon of John Bull giving his breeches to save his bacon
Opening of the budget; – or – John Bull giving his breeches to save his bacon[note 1] by James Gillray (d. 1815)
Since the 18th century, the farmer John Bull has represented English national identity, first in John Arbuthnot's political satires, and soon afterwards in cartoons by James Gillray and others including John Tenniel. He likes food, beer, dogs, horses, and country sports; he is practical and down to earth, and anti-intellectual.[108]

Farm animals are widespread in books and songs for children; the reality of animal husbandry is often distorted, softened, or idealized, giving children an almost entirely fictitious account of farm life. The books often depict happy animals free to roam in attractive countryside, a picture completely at odds with the realities of the impersonal, mechanized activities involved in modern intensive farming.[109]

Illustration of dressed pigs
Dressed pigs in Beatrix Potter's 1913 The Tale of Pigling Bland
Pigs, for example, appear in several of Beatrix Potter's "little books", as Piglet in A.A. Milne's Winnie the Pooh stories, and somewhat more darkly (with a hint of animals going to slaughter) as Babe in Dick King-Smith's The Sheep-Pig, and as Wilbur in E. B. White's Charlotte's Web.[110] Pigs tend to be "bearers of cheerfulness, good humour and innocence". Many of these books are completely anthropomorphic, dressing farm animals in clothes and having them walk on two legs, live in houses, and perform human activities.[109] The children's song "Old MacDonald Had a Farm" describes a farmer named MacDonald and the various animals he keeps, celebrating the noises they each make.[111]

Many urban children experience animal husbandry for the first time at a petting farm; in Britain, some five million people a year visit a farm of some kind. This presents some risk of infection, especially if children handle animals and then fail to wash their hands; a strain of E. coli infected 93 people who had visited a British interactive farm in an outbreak in 2009.[112] Historic farms such as those in the United States offer farmstays and "a carefully curated version of farming to those willing to pay for it",[113] sometimes giving visitors a romanticised image of a pastoral idyll from an unspecified time in the pre-industrial past.

Address

Adama
1000

Telephone

+251968485345

Website

http://www.niguse.com/

Alerts

Be the first to know and let us send you an email when Cattle husbandry posts news and promotions. Your email address will not be used for any other purpose, and you can unsubscribe at any time.

Contact The Business

Send a message to Cattle husbandry:

Videos

Rope restraints There are several rope restraint techniques that may help you to safely examine animals. Is a halter available? Even if the animal is in a crush, tying the animal's head to the side will give you easier and safer access to the jugular groove. Consider carrying your own halter around in your car - you can even make your own. Learn how to put a halter on correctly - farmers enjoy pointing out to a vet that a halter is on upside down so don't give them the satisfaction! Use of a halter to give access to the jugular groove Use of a halter to give access to the jugular groove Can you use a rope to restrain a limb either to help give you access to scan or auscultate the heart, or perhaps to prevent the animal kicking you?

Is the headgate appropriate for the size of animal that you are working with? Is the width of the headgate adjustable?more information What condition is the crush in? Are there broken restraint mechanisms or is some of the metalwork rusty? Are there appropriate restraints for feet if you have been asked to examine them? A poorly maintained or badly equipped foot crush is potentially dangerous - if you don't think the equipment is up to the job, tell the farmer that you can't safely examine the feet!

LIGHTWEIGHT BUT POWERFUL CATTLE HOOF TRIMMING TOOLS Discover HOOF BOSS, state-of-the-art cattle hoof trimming tools designed to perform intricate hoof procedures instead of high volume maintenance trimming. Weighing only 1.3 pounds, the HOOF BOSS is lightweight but powerful and can be used in the treatment of all kinds of laminitis issues including: ulcers, abscesses, white line lesions, and double soles. With precise and accurate cuts, the HOOF BOSS removes as little hoof as possible making the recovery period as short as possible. HERE ARE THE REASONS DAIRYMEN AND HOOF TRIMMERS SHOULD CONSIDER THE HOOF BOSS: REDUCES HOOF KNIFE USE Our HOOF BOSS was developed specifically to provide the Dairymen and Hoof Trimmers a power option for doing preventative care and corrective cattle hoof trimming. The HOOF BOSS, utilizing chainsaw disc technology and replicates the actions of a manual hoof knife. The need for a manual hoof knife is diminished greatly. If you’re a dairyman and only trim a few cows, the HOOF BOSS is the perfect all-in-one trimmer for you, it can be used for low volume maintenance trimming, too. PREPARE HOOVES & BLOCKS An additional benefit in using the HOOF BOSS for corrective trimming can help in getting the hoof prepped for blocking. It can be used to roughen up hooves before applying glue and to modify wooden blocks for a better fit. SHARPENS EASILY- STAYS SHARP Unlike the manual hoof knife and nippers, the HOOF BOSS is easy for anyone to sharpen. It keeps its edge, so you’ll always get an easy and even trim. With the included diamond-coated chainsaw file you’ll save time too, as it only takes a couple of minutes to sharpen all four-tungsten carbide coated teeth. PRECISE AND ACCURATE CATTLE HOOF TRIMMING EQUIPMENT The HOOF BOSS precision and accuracy give you complete control over how much hoof you remove. You can perform the most specialized hoof care tasks and complete detailed procedures with ease with this safe, effective, and easy-to-use trim

Proper functional and therapeutic hoof trimming in dairy cattle can reduce and help prevent lameness in dairy cows and can also improve productivity and overall animal wellness. Research shows that cows with healthy, pain-free hooves stay in the herd longer, have higher milk production and generate more long-term profit. The steps in this guide should only be done by properly trained personnel, so choose a highly-skilled hoof trimmer. The Five-Step Dutch Hoof Trimming Method

This agfact is written to highlight the alternatives available to beef and dairy producers should they need to dehorn calves. As with all husbandry practices, painless alternatives such as breeding polled animals should be considered first. Should dehorning be required it should be done as young as practicable. There are a number of methods available to dehorn young cattle. Why dehorn cattle? Bruising costs the Australian beef cattle industry an estimated $20 million yearly. Extensive research in New South Wales and Queensland has shown that the single major cause of bruising is the presence of horns on cattle. Dehorning is a short-term solution to the problem. In the long term, it is recommended that bruising and injury be reduced by breeding poll cattle. Producers considering Cattlecare accreditation are required to dehorn all calves. Compared with hornless stock, horned cattle: can cause more severe injury to other cattle, especially in yards, feedlots and transport; can damage hides and cause bruising which reduces the value of carcases; are harder to handle in yards and crushes; can be potentially more dangerous to handlers; require more space at a feed trough and on cattle trucks; are not as tractable and quiet to handle; may suffer discounts at sale especially if they are destined for feedlots. Minimising pain and stress While dehorning has been an accepted part of cattle management for generations, greater awareness of animal welfare in recent years means that past methods can no longer be accepted without question. Dehorning by veterinarians using sedation and local anaesthesia is accepted practice in Europe and should be encouraged in this country where practical, such as in small intensively managed situations. Impracticality of alternatives should not automatically be accepted as justification for the continued practice of painful procedures, and producers need to take steps to minimise, whenever possible, the pain and stress that they inflict. With the