Vesicular stomatitis in horses treatment and prevention

Vesicular stomatitis in horses treatment and prevention Vesicular stomatitis (VS) is a viral disease of livestock transmitted primarily by biting flies and They are the prototypes of the Vesiculovirus genus.

Etiology
Vesicular stomatitis viruses are members of the family Rhabdoviridae and genus Vesiculovirus. They are bullet shaped and generally 180 nm long and 75 nm wide. The genomic structure is a single strand of negative-sense RNA composed of five genes (N, P, M, G, and L, representing the nucleocapsid protein, phosphoprotein, matrix protein, glycoprotein, and the large protein, which is a compone

nt of the viral RNA polymerase). Although there are many members of the Vesiculovirus genus, the New Jersey and Indiana serotypes are of particular interest in the Western hemisphere. These two viruses are similar in size and morphology but generate distinct neutralizing antibodies in infected animals. They have both been isolated in recent outbreaks in the USA. Epidemiology and Transmission
Vesicular stomatitis is seen sporadically in the USA. Outbreaks historically occurred in all regions of the country but since the 1980s have been limited to western states and occur seasonally, usually May through October, with some outbreaks overwintering and continuing into a subsequent year or years. Outbreaks occurred in the USA in 1995, 1997 to 1998, 2004 to 2006, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2014 to 2015, and 2019. The largest outbreak in the past decade occurred in 2015 and resulted in 823 affected premises in eight states. Vesicular stomatitis viruses are endemic in South America, Central America, and parts of Mexico but have not been seen naturally outside the Western hemisphere. The virus can be transmitted through direct contact with infected animals with clinical disease (those with lesions) or by biting insects. Black flies (Simulidae), sand flies (Lutzomyia), and biting midges (Culicoides spp) have been shown to be competent vectors, but other insects may act as mechanical vectors as well. Exposure to insects that carry the virus is often associated with nearby moving water sources such as creeks or rivers or irrigation of pastures. Experimental studies have shown that feeding of infected insects on mucosal surfaces and nonhaired areas of the body were more often associated with development of lesions at those sites than if insects fed on haired areas of the body. The prevalence of clinical cases in a herd is generally low (10%–20%), but seroprevalence within the herd may approach 100%. Viremia has not been detected in livestock species that exhibit clinical signs of vesicular stomatitis, although experimental studies have shown transmission of virus, presumably via lymphatics, between co-feeding black flies on cattle. Virus is routinely isolated from active lesions in affected animals, and these lesions serve as a source of virus spread by direct contact and contamination of shared feed and water stations. Many vertebrate species have serologic evidence of exposure, but no definitive reservoir or amplifying host of vesicular stomatitis viruses has been identified. Clinical Findings
The incubation period for vesicular stomatitis is 2–8 days and is typically followed by a fever. By the time animals develop other signs and are examined, however, they are rarely febrile. Ptyalism is often the first sign of disease. Vesicles in the oral cavity are rarely seen in naturally occurring cases because of rupture soon after formation; therefore, ulcers are the most common lesion seen during initial examination. Ulcers and erosions of the oral mucosa, sloughing of the epithelium of the tongue, and lesions at the mucocutaneous junctions of the lips are commonly seen in both cattle and horses. Ulcers and erosions on the teats are not uncommon in cattle and may result in secondary cases of mastitis in dairy cows. Coronitis with erosions at the coronary band are seen in some cattle, horses, and pigs, with subsequent development of lameness. Crusting lesions of the muzzle, ventral abdomen, ears, sheath, and udder of horses are typical during outbreaks in the western USA. Loss of appetite due to oral lesions, and lameness due to foot lesions, are normally of short duration. The disease is generally self-limiting and resolves completely within 10–14 days. Virus-neutralizing antibodies to either serotype persist and have been documented in individual horses that had previous clinical disease for 10–12 years after an outbreak, but reinfection can occur after a second exposure. Diagnosis
Clinical signs with serologic or antigen detection
In most areas, including the USA, vesicular stomatitis is a reportable disease. Samples for diagnostic purposes are generally taken by a foreign animal disease diagnostician or other regulatory veterinarians and are tested by officially designated government laboratories. Diagnosis is based on the presence of typical signs and either antibody detection through serologic tests, viral detection through isolation, or detection of viral genetic material by molecular techniques. Samples for viral isolation may include vesicular fluid, epithelial tags from lesions, or swabs of lesions. Vesicular stomatitis viruses are easily propagated in cell culture. Three commonly used serologic tests are competitive ELISA, virus neutralization, and complement fixation. Whereas cELISA and virus neutralization titers persist for many years after an outbreak, complement fixation titers are relatively short-lived and provide the best serologic evidence of recent infection. Antigen detection assays to confirm diagnosis include PCR tests and virus isolation. Of primary concern in diagnosis is differentiation of vesicular stomatitis from clinically indistinguishable but much more devastating viral diseases, including foot-and-mouth disease in ruminants and swine, swine vesicular disease, and vesicular exanthema of swine. Horses are not susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease. Both noninfectious and infectious causes of oral lesions must be considered. Treatment, Control, and Prevention
Supportive care
Vesicular stomatitis is self-limiting, with no specific treatment other than supportive care. Cachexia can be avoided by providing softened feeds. Cleansing lesions with mild antiseptics may help avoid secondary bacterial infections. Aged animals or those with underlying medical conditions may require administration of IV fluids if oral lesions result in a reluctance to drink. Management factors suggested to reduce risk of exposure to the virus include limiting time on pasture during insect season, providing shelters or barns during insect feeding times, and implementing other procedures that reduce animal contact with insects, such as application of insecticides. If livestock need to be kept on pasture during outbreaks of vesicular stomatitis, then keeping them pastured away from moving surface water (such as streams, irrigation canals, or rivers) may reduce the risk of exposure to vectors carrying vesicular stomatitis virus. Affected animals should be isolated, and movement of other animals from the affected premises restricted. Vesicular stomatitis is a reportable disease in most areas, including the USA, so state and federal animal health officials must be notified when it is suspected. In the USA, affected premises are placed under state quarantine for a period of at least 14 days from the onset of lesions in the last affected animal. Commercially produced vaccines are not available in the USA, but vaccines for livestock are available in some Latin American countries. Veterinarians act as a part of the surveillance network as they examine animals involved in shows, exhibitions, races, and interstate or international movement in order to write a health certificate (ie, certificate of veterinary inspection). When practitioners observe suspect cases of vesicular stomatitis, they should report to both their state and federal animal health officials. Reporting will prompt a regulatory investigation. Lesion swab and serum samples from suspected animals are submitted for testing to approved veterinary diagnostic laboratories. During outbreak years, data regarding laboratory-confirmed cases of vesicular stomatitis, along with the number of premises with cases, are posted on the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service of the USDA website. Zoonotic Risk
The vesicular stomatitis viruses are zoonotic and may cause self-limiting influenza-like disease (headache, fever, myalgia, and weakness) lasting 3–5 days in people working in close contact with the virus (eg, laboratory exposure, direct contact with lesions in infected animals). Rarely, people can develop vesicles on the buccal and pharyngeal mucosa, lips, and nose. More severe signs, including encephalitis, are rare. Personal protective equipment should be used when handling lesioned animals to avoid contact with the virus present in the lesions.

Disease Transmission There are still some questions regarding how vesicular stomatitis is transmitted and why it only oc...
28/02/2023

Disease Transmission

There are still some questions regarding how vesicular stomatitis is transmitted and why it only occurs sporadically in the U.S. The disease is distributed only in North, Central, and South America, with a greater incidence in warmer regions. Due to the seasonal occurrence of VS during summer through early fall, it is believed that insects such as biting flies and midges contribute to maintaining the lifecycle of the virus. Black flies, sand flies, and midges are known to transmit the virus, but there may be other insect vectors that have not yet been identified. VS also can be passed from horse to horse by contact with saliva or fluid from ruptured blisters. Physical contact between animals, or contact with buckets, equipment, housing, trailers, feed, bedding, shared water troughs or other items used by an infected horse can provide a ready means of spread.

04/02/2023
13/10/2022

Prevention

By observing the following guidelines you can help prevent the occurrence of VS:

· Healthy horses are more disease resistant so provide good nutrition, regular exercise, deworming and routine vaccinations.

· Isolate new horses for at least 21 days before introducing them into the herd or stable.

· Observe your horse closely. Immediately isolate any horse that shows signs of infection and contact your veterinarian.
· Implement an effective insect control program. Keep stabling areas clean and dry. Remove manure and eliminate potential breeding grounds (standing water, muddy areas) for insect vectors.
· Use individual rather than communal feeders, waterers, and equipment.
· Clean and disinfect feed bunks, waterers, horse trailers and other equipment regularly.

· Be sure that your farrier and other equine professionals who come into direct contact with your animals exercise due care so as not to spread the disease from one horse or facility to the next.

· On farms where VS has been confirmed, isolate any animals with lesions away from others and handle healthy animals first, ill animals last. Handlers should then shower, change clothing and disinfect equipment to prevent exposing others.
· Anyone handling infected horses should implement proper biosafety methods, including wearing latex gloves and washing hands after handling animals with lesions.

· If you are sponsoring an event during an outbreak, require a more recent health certificate on every horse entering the venue and consider having a veterinarian visually inspect all horses at check-in. Work with your event veterinarian to establish isolation and response procedures that can be implemented quickly if a suspect case is identified at the venue.

13/10/2022

Treatment

While a horse is suffering from vesicular stomatitis, feeding soft feeds may reduce mouth discomfort. Anti-inflammatory medications may be used as supportive care help to minimize swelling and pain so a horse will continue to eat and drink. If the horse becomes dehydrated from not drinking enough water, your veterinarian may need to provide additional supportive care using intravenous fluids. Secondary bacterial infection of ulcerated areas is another concern. If fever, swelling, inflammation or pus develops around the sores, treatment with antibiotics may be required. Flushing the mouth regularly with a dilute antiseptic solutions, such as chlorhexidine in water, may reduce secondary bacterial contamination of the sores and speed healing. However, there is little more an owner or veterinarian can do but wait for healing to occur and take appropriate precautions to minimize the risk of spread of the disease to other horses and livestock.

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Excessive drooling is often the first sign of disease. Blisters in the mouth are rarely seen in naturally occurring case...
13/10/2022

Excessive drooling is often the first sign of disease. Blisters in the mouth are rarely seen in naturally occurring cases because they rupture soon after formation. Ulcers and erosions of the mouth linings, shedding of the surface of the tongue, and ulcers at the junctions of the lips are commonly seen. Inflammation and erosions at the coronary band of the hoof are sometimes observed; lameness soon follows. Crusting lesions of the muzzle, lower abdomen, the covering of the p***s, and udder of horses are typical during outbreaks in the southwestern US. Loss of appetite due to mouth ulcers and lameness due to foot ulcers are normally of short duration, as the disease generally resolves within 2 weeks. However, reinfection can occur following a second exposure. Both noninfectious and infectious causes of mouth sores must be considered as other possible diagnoses.

Vesicular stomatitis is caused by a virus and affects horses, cattle, and pigs. It also rarely affects sheep, goats, and...
13/10/2022

Vesicular stomatitis is caused by a virus and affects horses, cattle, and pigs. It also rarely affects sheep, goats, and llamas. The virus can be transmitted to humans and may cause flu-like disease. Vesicular stomatitis is seen only sporadically in the US. Outbreaks have historically occurred in all regions of the country, but since the 1980s have been limited to the southwestern states. Infection tends to be seasonal, usually May through October. Vesicular stomatitis viruses are prevalent in South America, Central America, and parts of Mexico but have not been seen naturally outside the Western hemisphere.
The virus can be transmitted through direct contact with infected animals that have signs of disease (those with sores) or by blood-feeding insects. In the southwestern US, black flies are the most likely carrier. In areas where this disease is common, sand flies are also known to transmit it

27/07/2022

Etiology
Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) belongs to the genus Vesiculovirus in the family Rhabdoiviridae. The most important serotypes are New Jersey and Indiana. There are four viruses that cause vesicular stomatitis: vesicular stomatitis New Jersey virus (VSV-NJ), vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus (VSV-IN), vesicular stomatitis Alagoas virus (VSVAV) and Cocal virus. But VSVAV and Cocal virus are members of the Indiana serotype. It is a low mortality disease in equids and endemic in the Americas.
Epidemiology
Clinical signs mainly afecct swine, cattle and equids. The Vesicular Stomatitis (VS) is an insect-borne disease (arbovirus) and can spread from animal to animal by direct contact (contaminated saliva and vesicle material). VS is seasonal, in USA occurs in the spring and in the begining of the summer, and in tropical regions in the rainy season.
Establishing movement controls and a prompt diagnosis in swine and catle to detect diseases such as Food and Mouth Disease (FMD) is very important, as well as the implementation of vector control measures.
Pathogeny
The pathogenesis is typical of viral infections, with a series of events terminating in the release of progeny virions and cell death. Infection of epithelium with VSV induces intercelular edema in the Malpighian layer, and the epitelial cells become separated. Vesicles develop within 48 hours of experimental inoculation, when the necrotic and edematous mucosa breaks free from underlying tissue, forming a cavity filled with exudates.
Clinical signs
An initial febrile period is followed by formation of vesicles and lessions, in the oral mucosae, horse´s muzzle, feet (coronitis) and udders, causing limp and ptyalism, even anorexia. Unless secondary infections occur, horses recover completely within 2-3 weeks.
Diagnosis
Laboratory tests are essential in order to do the diagnosis because VS is clinically indistinguishable from several other vesicular diseases. However, very few infectious agents in equids have those clinical signs, and the vesicle formation in horses are highly associated with Vesicular stomatitis.
Treatment
Treatment is supportive. Frequent rinsing of lesions with mild antiseptic solutions as a supportive care measure, and the application of topical antibiotics may help prevent secondary bacterial infections. A soft diet in animals with oral lessions is indicated.
Prevention and control
Commercial vaccines are only available in some endemic regions of Central and South America, not in the U.S. During outbreaks, infected animals should be kept away from any other animals to prevent direct contact. Quarantines and animal movement restrictions can help to reduce virus spread. Good sanitation and disinfection of vehicles and fomites is recommended. Finally the control of insects and protection of animals in shelters is recommended.
Public Health Considerations
VS in humans occurs as an acute, self limiting infection similar to influenza. Fever, general malaise and mialgia are the clinic signs. Vesicular lesions are rare. Most people recover within 4 and 7 days. Human infection occurs by handling infected animals, and by contact with contaminated fomites, tissues and blood cultures. To prevent infection Personal Protective Equipment must be worn.
Vesicular Stomatitis is considered a reportable disease by the

08/07/2022

In June of 2020, the first few cases of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV) in horses were reported in Butler County Kansas. This disease eventually spread to 26 counties in Kansas during the summer and fall of 2020.
Clinical signs of VSV include ulcers in the mouth, coronary band, ear, and even mammary glands and sheath. This virus can also infect other animals including cattle, and less commonly sheep, goats, alpacas, and even humans (but rarely). This disease is very contagious, but death is not reported.
The question is, to many horse owners, why is VSV a big deal? It is because VSV is reportable, veterinarians must call the state office, and the virus does cause a decrease in weight gain and milk production in cattle (thus economic loss). The Kansas Dept. of Agriculture (KDA) will quarantine the farm/premise if there is a horse diagnosed with VSV. Currently the KDA will only quarantine the affected farm, and there are no rules regarding other farms around the quarantined farm.
However, other states may have different rules regarding VSV. Horse owners need to be aware that if there is an outbreak of VSV in Kansas, it will have an impact on travel of horses and livestock to other states or countries. Other states may require additional requirements before your veterinarian call write a valid health paper (or certificate of veterinary inspection).
If there is another outbreak of VSV in Kansas this summer, please have your veterinarian call the state you are planning on traveling to, to ensure there are not any additional requirements for a valid health certificate.

Healthy animals should always be handled first and ill animals handled last. Handlers should then shower, change clothin...
30/06/2021

Healthy animals should always be handled first and ill animals handled last. Handlers should then shower, change clothing and disinfect equipment to prevent exposing others.

Anyone handling infected horses should implement proper biosafety methods including wearing latex gloves and washing hands after handling animals with lesions.

“If you’re sponsoring an equine event during an outbreak, require a recent health certificate on every horse entering the location and consider having a veterinarian visually inspect all horses at check-in,” Hiney said.

“Work with the veterinarian to establish isolation and response procedures that can be implemented quickly if a suspected case is identified at the site.”

Vesicular stomatitis can also be transmitted from infected horses to humans. The disease in humans tends to cause severe flu-like symptoms such as headache, fever, muscle aches and extreme fatigue.

30/06/2021

The disease can be passed from horse to horse by contact with saliva or fluid from ruptured blisters.
“Insect control programs should be implemented as insects are the primary manner in which the virus is spread,” says Kris Hiney, an equine specialist with the Extension.
“Physical contact between animals, or contact with buckets, equipment, housing, trailers, feed, bedding, shared water troughs or other items used by an infected horse also can provide a ready means of spread.”
University experts have a range of suggestions to help prevent the disease:
Healthy horses are more disease resistant, so provide good nutrition, regular exercise, deworming and routine vaccinations;
Isolate new horses for at least 21 days before introducing them into a herd or stable;
Implement an effective insect-control program as certain types of flies and midges can transmit the disease. Remove manure promptly and eliminate potential breeding grounds for insects such as standing water and muddy areas;
Use individual rather than communal feeders, waterers and equipment;
Clean and disinfect feed bunks, waterers, horse trailers and other equipment regularly;
Be sure farriers and other equine professionals who come into direct contact with the horse exercise caution so as not to spread the disease from one horse or facility to the next.
For facilities where vesicular stomatitis has been confirmed, horses with lesions should be isolated from others.

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