Ketosis in cattle diagnosis, treatment and prevention

Ketosis in cattle diagnosis, treatment and prevention Artificial insemination is a fertility treatment method used to deliver s***m directly to the cervix The animal will be in restlessness and nervousness. A.I.

SYMPTOMS OF HEAT

The various symptoms of heat are

The animal will be excited condition. The animal will be bellow frequency. The animal will reduce the intake of feed. Peculiar movement of limbo sacral region will b observed. The animals which are in heat will lick other animals and smelling other animals. The animals will try to mount other animals
The animals will standstill when other a

nimal try to mount.. This period is known as standing heat. This extends 14-16 hours. Frequent maturation (urination) will be observed. Clear mucous discharge will be seen from the v***a, sometimes it will be string like the mucous will be seen stick to the near the pasts of valva. Swelling of the valva will be seen.
11 Congestion and hyperemia of membrane. The tail will be in raised position. Milk production will be slightly decreased. On Palpation uterus will be turgid and the cervix will be opened. ADVANTAGES – DISADVANTAGES

Advantages and disadvantages:

Artificial insemination (A.I.) is deposition of semen into the female ge***al tract by means of instruments. ADVANTAGES OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION:

There are several advantages by artificial insemination over natural mating or servicing. There is no need of maintenance of breeding bull for a herd; hence the cost of maintenance of breeding bull is saved. It prevents the spread of certain diseases and sterility due to ge***al diseases. Eg: contagious abortion, vibriosis. By regular examination of semen after collection and frequent checking on fertility make early detection of interior males and better breeding efficiency is ensured. The progeny testing can be done at an early age. The semen of a desired size can be used even after the death of that particular sire. The semen collected can be taken to the urban areas or rural areas for insemination.
7 It makes possible the mating of animals with great differences in size without injury to either of the animal. It is helpful to inseminate the animals that are refuse to stands or accept the male at the time of oestrum. It helps in maintaining the accurate breeding and cawing records. It increases the rate of conception. It helps in better record keeping. Old, heavy and injured sires can be used. Disadvantages of A.I:

Requires well-trained operations and special equipment. Requires more time than natural services. Necessitates the knowledge of the structure and function of reproduction on the part of operator. Improper cleaning of instruments and in sanitary conditions may lead to lower fertility. If the bull is not properly tested, the spreading of ge***al diseases will be increased. Market for bulls will be reduced, while that for superior bull is increased. SEMEN COLLECTION METHODS AND EVALUATION:

Various methods of collection of semen have been devised from time to time. The older unsatisfactory methods have gradually replaced by the new modern techniques. There are three common methods. Use of artificial va**na
By Electro-stimulation method. By massaging the ampulae of the duct us differences through re**al wall. The ideal method of semen collection is use of artificial va**na which is safe for sire and the collector also. ARTIFICIAL VA**NA METHOD

The artificial va**na has the following parts:

A heavy hard rubber 2" lose, open at both ends with a nostle for air and water in and outlet. Inner sleeve of rubber or rubber liner. The semen receiving cone or rubber cone. Semen collection tube made of glass or plastic graduate in cc and its fraction correct to 0.1 CC
Insulating bag Before using for semen collection all the parts are washed thoroughly and sterilized properly, and assembled as artificial va**na, the rubber liner is inserted into the hose; inverting both ends back by folding back from either side opening, and fastening with rubber bands. Now the space between the hard rubber hose and inner rubber liner forms a water tight compartment. The nostle at one end of the hose can be fixed . PARTS OF ARTIFICIAL VA**NA

Turning through the threaded nut up or down. The water jacket of the Artificial -va**na is- filled with hot water at a temperature of 45°C (113°F) by opening the nostle. The graduated semen collection tube is fixed to the narrow end of the artificial va**na hose, and fastened by a rubber band. The inner side of the rubber liner on the anterior side of the artificial va**na is lubricated with sterile jelly to a length of 3 to 4 inches. Air is blown through the nostle into the water jacket, to create pressure in if, and the same is exerted the rubber linear, to simulate natural va**na. The temperature of the artificial va**na is to be checked, at each collection, and it should simulate natural va**na at mounting time. If the artificial va**na is to mount later. If it is too cold ej*****te may not be there after a thrust, or even if ej*****te is there; it may be contaminated with urine, and becomes unfit for use. SEMEN COLLECTION METHOD. (A.V.) The cow or dummy is secured in service create. The artificial va**na assembled is held at 45° angle from the direction of p***s, and the thrust is that angle. The artificial va**na is held with the left hand by a right handed person; and when the bull mounts the cow, the sheath of the bull will be graphed by the operator, directing the gland p***s into the artificial va**na, and then the bull gives a thrust to ej*****te. The operator should evince care so as not to touch the exposed past of the p***s. After the bull dismounts, the artificial va**na is taken off from p***s and the air vent is opened to release the pressure from the jacket. The water from the jacket is also drained by opening the nostle. This allows the ej*****te to flow from the cone to the semen collection tube. The semen collection tube is detached from the cone, plugged with cotton wool, and taken to the laboratory for examination. The rubber cone and the semen collection tube can be protected from external contamination or heat or higher, by covering with an insulation bag with zip. semen collection
Semen Collection

SEMEN STORAGE

The discovery that bull semen could be successfully frozen and stored for indefinite periods has revolutionized AI in cattle. In 1949, British scientists discovered that addition of glycerol to the semen extender improved resistance of s***m to freezing. Glycerol acts to remove water from the s***m cell prior to freezing and prevents the formation of cellular ice crystals which would damage the s***m. There are two methods of freezing and storing semen: dry ice and alcohol (-100 degrees F) and liquid nitrogen (-320 degrees F). Liquid nitrogen is preferred because there is no evidence of fertility deterioration with age. Fertility gradually declines in semen stored in dry ice-alcohol. Frozen semen can be stored indefinitely if proper temperature is maintained. A recent report told of a calf born from frozen semen stored for 16 years. Fresh, liquid semen can be successfully stored for 1 to 4 days at 40 degrees F. Semen is usually stored in glass ampoules. Other methods appear promising, particularly the French-straw. Several AI organizations have gone to this method exclusively. Artificial coloring is frequently added to semen extenders in order to distinguish one breed from another. Complete identification of the bull is required on each individual semen container. INSEMINATION METHODS

There-are different methods insemination in different species of animals i.e. speculum method, va**nal method and recto va**nal method.

In the past thirty years, milk production of dairy cows has doubled in most countries. The direction of nutrients to the...
06/02/2023

In the past thirty years, milk production of dairy cows has doubled in most countries. The direction of nutrients to the udder immediately after calving has been the basis for successful breeding towards higher milk yield, but there is a large variation in the adaptative responses of individual cows toward energy and nutrient shortages. High milk yields pose a metabolic challenge for the cows, which may result in a decrease in the immune response, reproductive performance and milk quality, as well as cow welfare. Cows with higher milk production are more likely to suffer from ketosis [2], or hyperketonaemia, a metabolic state characterized by elevated concentrations of ketone bodies in the blood that diffuse to different body fluids: β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) can be found in blood and milk, acetoacetate in urine, and acetone in breath Ketosis occurs mainly postpartum, at the start of lactation, due to a negative energy balance. In that period, the feed consumption, and therefore the energy intake, of the cows do not meet the demands of the high milk production. To compensate for this shortage, the cow breaks down her own body fat, forming ketone bodies. The body can process small quantities of these ketone bodies, but in the case of glucose deficiency, oxaloacetate is extracted from the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) which leads to an excess of acetyl-Co, causing the formation of more ketone bodies, leading to ketosis. First and second-parity cows are less prone to ketosis because they are less at risk of a negative energy balance. These cows produce less milk and their liver is less fatty
Under normal conditions, ketone bodies are produced by the rumen epithelium from fatty acids in the diet, especially butyrate [6]. Ketone bodies are also produced in the liver from fatty acids, which are mobilized in adipose tissue during negative energy balance. Ketone bodies are important sources of energy [8], especially during negative energy balance and low blood glucose concentrations. At the start of lactation, blood glucose concentration decreases as well as the insulin/glucagon ratio while the concentrations of BHB and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) in the blood increase. The NEFAs are oxidized by β-oxidation, forming acetyl-CoA, which is used in the TCA cycle The excess of NEFAs results in an excess of acetyl-CoA that the TCA cycle cannot process, leading to ketogenesis. Acetoacetate is formed from acetyl-CoA and BHB and acetone from acetoacetate BHB is the major circulating ketone body in dairy cattle. Ketone bodies are released into the blood where they serve as an energy source for organs such as muscles, the brain, mammary glands, and the heart. In short, ketogenesis is a normal physiological process during fat mobilization, and ketone bodies are important energy sources, but an excess of ketone bodies due to ketogenesis can cause problems in the metabolic process. Risk factors for ketosis are a body condition score > 3.75 (on a scale from 1 to 5), multiple pregnancies, dry period > 70 days, locomotion problems, or claw health issues
Due to the negative energy balance during ketosis, the amount of energy available for other processes in the body is decreased and cows have an increased risk of uterine infection, mastitis, fatigue, and reduced fertility. Due to the reduced feed intake, there is a higher risk of abomasum displacement. Veterinary treatments, decreased milk production, a prolonged calving interval, and culling can result in high losses for ketotic cows, estimated at approximately 709 or 735 euros per case, and ranging from 64 to 1196 euros. In Europe, 16–23% of cows develop ketosis 2–15 days postpartum, with blood concentrations of BHB ≥ 1.2 mmol/L. In the Netherlands, 11.2 percent of dairy cows suffer from ketosis in the first months of lactation while the prevalence per farm varies from 0–80%
To detect ketosis at an early stage, ketone bodies can be measured. Several tests are used in practice, to determine BHB in blood, BHB in milk or acetoacetate in urine. Measuring acetone in breath is not yet common practice, partly because no sensors or tests are available yet for routine breath analysis in cows
The measurement of BHB in blood gives the most reliable results in the detection of ketone bodies because BHB is more stable than acetone or acetoacetate. BHB in the blood is therefore considered the gold standard for ketosis diagnosis . Therefore, in this study, we took blood samples, preferably from the jugular vein, the second choice being the coccygeal vein. Acetoacetate, acetone, and BHB are small molecules that do not bind to plasma proteins in the blood and therefore can end up in the preliminary urine. When the concentration of ketone bodies in the blood is low, almost all ketone bodies are resorbed in the kidneys. With high concentrations of ketone bodies in the blood, they are filtered out in the Bowman’s capsule, resulting in approximately 20% of the ketone bodies being excreted through the urine. Urine test strips measure acetoacetate in the urine, which is a reliable ketosis test and more reliable than milk tests Milk contains acetone, acetoacetate, and BHB. The concentration of ketone bodies in milk is about 50% of the total concentration of ketone bodies in the blood. The ketone bodies enter the milk via the blood capillaries surrounding the alveoli, which contain milk-forming cells. Ketone bodies can pass through the milk-forming cells into the milk sacks, and are transported with the milk to the milk atrium. Milk test strips measure BHB in milk, which has a strong correlation of 0.705 with BHB in blood, and therefore they are suitable for determining ketosis . Blood flows to the capillaries of the lungs, where it releases acetone into the alveoli, after which the air is exhaled. In an earlier study, it was shown that ketosis can be detected by analyzing exhaled air from cows. The acetone concentrations in blood correlated with concentrations of blood BHB (r = 0.81) and milk acetoacetate and acetone (r = 0.70). In another study, it was shown that acetone concentrations varied between 0 and 14 ppm. Ketotic cows showed higher acetone concentrations in breath, and it was concluded that breath analysis can be a non-invasive way of determining ketosis. Previous research indicated that the rise in acetone levels in breath occurs earlier than the rise in BHB in milk and acetoacetate in urine. This was also shown in another study, where acetone was the first rising ketone body in the blood
If acetone is indeed the first ketone body to rise in the blood, then acetone in breath might be a good indicator for early detection of rising ketone bodies and risk of ketosis. Through early detection, the cow can be treated in time to prevent a more serious course of disease [33]. However, breath analysis has not yet been compared to blood values. Testing ketosis in blood gives more reliable results than the ketosis test strips for milk and urine
The purpose of this study was to measure ketone bodies in the breath of cows at risk of ketosis just before and after calving and to compare the rise in ketone bodies in blood, urine, milk, and breath. The main research question is whether a rise in ketone bodies is shown in all body fluids and which measurement shows the rise first. If the concentration of acetone in breath increases at the same time or soon after the rise of BHB in blood, then breath analysis is a good alternative for the present ketosis tests. It is non-invasive and there are possibilities to automate the process. This can help the farmer with the early detection and treatment of ketosis, preventing a more serious course of the disease, and being beneficial for cow welfare, as well as for the technical and financial results of the farm.

Prevention and monitoringThe key to preventing the onset of ketosis is to maintain a good transition cow management prot...
22/09/2022

Prevention and monitoring
The key to preventing the onset of ketosis is to maintain a good transition cow management protocol with body condition score a key factor: cows shouldn’t be excessively fat at calving as this depresses feed intakes. On a scale of 1 to 5, a BCS of 2.5-3.0 is optimal, with anything higher than 3.0 considered too fat and at greater risk of ketosis. Monitoring the body condition of dairy cows is therefore essential throughout the dry period.
The transition cow management protocol should also aim to minimise the natural tendency for cows to consume less during the last three weeks of gestation. A high fiber ration during the dry period can also help to negate the problem of reduced voluntary intake at calving, with the provision of high levels of roughage also helping to promote good rumen digestion. The key is to check the quality of the forage being used several times every year to know exactly what your cows are eating.
The overall aim during the transition period is to ease the animal from gestation to lactation by offering a highly palatable ration at calving and providing suitable accommodation. Any major dietary changes should certainly be avoided during early lactation. Roughage with a high butyric acid content should be avoided in early lactation.
Metabolic profiles using blood samples or milk samples taken from groups of dry cows and cows in early lactation can help to monitor the herd’s health and detect subclinical disease at an early stage so that any necessary dietary changes can be implemented as and when required.
Concentrates fed during lactation should be introduced in small amounts, approximately two weeks before calving, to allow adjustments of the rumen microflora. Some nutritional products including niacin, calcium propionate, sodium propionate, propylene glycol, and rumen-protected choline, may help to prevent and manage ketosis if introduced in the last 2–3 weeks of gestation, as well as during the early stages of the ensuing lactation.
Occasionally, very high-yielding cows will be susceptible to ketosis every year: a preventive drenching program of propylene glycol immediately after calving may help to avert ketosis in these problem cows.
There is also a genetic element to ketosis: the inheritability of ketosis is relatively high and there is some variation in breed predisposition to ketosis. However, management protocols have a much greater influence than genetics on the incidence of ketosis.

Symptoms of ketosisKetosis expresses in a number of ways including reduced milk yield, weight loss, reduced appetite, du...
22/09/2022

Symptoms of ketosis
Ketosis expresses in a number of ways including reduced milk yield, weight loss, reduced appetite, dull coat, breath/milk smelling of acetone (pear drops) and fever. Some cows also develop nervous signs including excessive salivation, licking and aggression.
Cows affected by subclinical ketosis (high blood serum ketone body concentrations without any of the observed clinical symptoms mentioned above) will be at increased risk of developing clinical ketosis and will also be more susceptible to displaced abomasum and reduced fertility. They may also suffer from reduced milk production. Cows with raised blood ketone levels may excrete ketones in urine and milk.

22/09/2022

Treatment of ketosis in dairy cattle
The initial aim of treatment is to restore the lack of glucose in the body. A quick-acting glucose supplement is required immediately, with follow-up treatment aimed at providing a long-term supply of glucose. Many of the long-acting corticosteroids have beneficial effects in ketosis as they help to break down muscle protein to produce glucose which immediately replenishes the depressed blood glucose levels.

22/09/2022

Risk factors of Ketosis
Insufficient ruminal production of propionic acid (the main precursor of glucose in ruminants) will result in hypoglycemia and worsen the situation. This can be caused by underfeeding or a reduced feed intake as a result of a suppressed appetite or lack of feed (quality, quantity and access). A lack of appetite is normal around calving but may be worsened in the early stages of a new lactation by a poor forage quality, sudden changes in diet or excessive weight at calving.
Other common risk factors for the onset of ketosis are:
wintry conditions (when the cow has to expend more energy to keep herself warm)
higher parity cows
milk fever (which reduces feed intake after calving)
cows which have experienced ketosis in the previous lactation
cows which had an increased 305-day milk yield in the previous lactation.
Silage with a high butyric acid loading can also promote the onset of ketosis. Silage containing high levels of butyric acid is also less palatable and will therefore be consumed in lower quantities, further exacerbating the energy imbalance.
Secondary ketosis is common and is the result of conditions such as displaced abomasum, mastitis and metritis causing a reduction in appetite during early lactation.
In areas of cobalt deficiency, ketosis may also be diagnosed in grazing cattle: rumen microbes need sufficient cobalt to enable the synthesis of vitamin B12, and it is also essential for adequate utilisation of propionic acid.
Ketosis is also common in dairy herds affected by liver fluke or fasciolosis.

22/09/2022

How does Ketosis occur?
A negative energy balance leads to the mobilization of free fatty acids and glycerol from the fat stores which are oxidized into products such as Acetyl-CoA. However, the liver cannot fully process all that Acetyl-CoA and the excess is therefore converted into, among other things, ketones – a process known as acetonaemia or ketosis.
Milk production places a significant burden on a dairy cow’s resources, with the majority of the energy required to produce large volumes of milk usually obtained from ingested feed and body reserves. However, when milk production increases rapidly during the early stages of a new lactation the energy taken in is often insufficient to meet the energy output required to reach peak milk production. As such the cow goes into a negative energy balance and can become more vulnerable to poor health, with any stresses that cause a further reduction in feed intake potentially leading to the additional health problems.

Ketosis: prevention is better than cureMilk production places a significant burden on a dairy cow’s resources, with the ...
22/09/2022

Ketosis: prevention is better than cure
Milk production places a significant burden on a dairy cow’s resources, with the majority of the energy required to produce large volumes of milk usually obtained from ingested feed and body reserves. However, when milk production increases rapidly during the early stages of a new lactation the energy taken in is often insufficient to meet the energy output required to reach peak milk production. As such the cow goes into a negative energy balance and can become more vulnerable to poor health, with any stresses that cause a further reduction in feed intake potentially leading to the additional health problems.

22/09/2022

Prevention and Control of Ketosis in Cattle
Prevention of ketosis is via nutritional and cow management. Efficient reproductive programs are critical in minimizing body condition score gain. Ketosis risk increases with age at first calving and is elevated in cows that have a prolonged interval from calving to conception.
Body condition of cows should be managed in late lactation, when cows frequently become too fat. Modifying the diets of late lactation cows to increase the energy supply from digestible fiber and reduce the energy supply from starch may aid in partitioning dietary energy toward milk and away from body fattening. The dry period is generally too late to reduce body condition score. Reducing body condition in the dry period, particularly in the late dry period, may even be counterproductive, resulting in excessive adipose mobilization prepartum.
A critical area in ketosis prevention is maintaining and promoting feed intake. This includes attention to diet but also to the management of the cows and management of feeding. Cows tend to reduce feed consumption in the last 3 weeks of gestation. Stressors such as empty feedbunks, cow movement disrupting the social order, overcrowding, and isolation can all inhibit feed intake. Nutritional management should be aimed at minimizing this reduction in feed intake. Controversy exists regarding the optimal dietary characteristics during this period. It is likely that optimal energy and fiber concentrations in rations for cows in the last 3 weeks of gestation vary from farm to farm. Feed intake should be monitored and rations adjusted to meet but not greatly exceed energy requirements throughout the entire dry period. For Holstein cows of typical adult body size, the average daily energy requirement throughout the dry period is between 14 and 16 Mcal expressed as net energy for lactation (NEL).
After calving, diets should promote rapid and sustained increases in feed and energy consumption. Early lactation rations should be relatively high in nonfiber carbohydrate concentration but contain enough fiber to maintain rumen health and feed intake. Neutral-detergent fiber concentrations should usually be in the range of 28%–30%, with nonfiber carbohydrate concentrations in the range of 38%–41%. Dietary particle size will influence the optimal proportions of carbohydrate fractions. Some feed additives, including niacin, yeast products, and rumen-protected choline, might be helpful aids in the management of ketosis. To be effective, these supplements should be fed in the last 2–3 weeks of gestation, as well as during the period of ketosis susceptibility.
In some countries, monensin sodium is approved for use in preventing subclinical ketosis and its associated diseases. Where approved, it is recommended at the rate of around 300 mg/head/day throughout the transition period.

22/09/2022

Treatment of Ketosis in Cattle
Oral administration (drench) of propylene glycol (250–400 g, PO, every 24 hours for 3–5 days) is the standard and most efficacious treatment
Additional therapy with bolus glucose treatment (500 mL of 50% dextrose solution, IV, as a single bolus) in neurologic cases and vitamin B12 (1.25 mg, IM, every 24 hours for 3 days) in cases that are also hypoglycemic is suggested
Treatment of ketosis is aimed at reestablishing normoglycemia and reducing serum ketone body concentrations. Bolus glucose treatment (500 mL of 50% dextrose solution, IV, as a single bolus) is also common. This solution is very hyperosmotic and, if administered perivascularly, results in severe tissue swelling and irritation, so care should be taken to ensure that it is given IV. Bolus glucose treatment generally results in a rapid temporary recovery, especially in cases occurring near peak lactation (type I ketosis). However, the effect frequently is transient, and relapses are common.
Dextrose administration is recommended for cases of nervous ketosis, but may not be necessary or even helpful for every ketosis case. Administration of glucocorticoids is not recommended as there is little evidence of benefit and some indication of harm.
Propylene glycol acts as a glucose precursor, and oral drenching (250–400 g [8–14 oz], PO, every 24 hours for 3–5 days) is effective as a ketosis treatment. Overdosing propylene glycol leads to CNS depression.
There is also support for the use of vitamin B12 (1.25 mg, IM, every 24 hours for 3 days) as an adjunct treatment with oral drenching of propylene glycol, particularly in ketotic cows that are also hypoglycemic. 1,2
Ketosis cases occurring within the first 1–2 weeks after calving (type II ketosis) frequently are more refractory to treatment than cases occurring nearer to peak lactation (type I ketosis). In many cases, a repeated 5-day course of oral drenching of propylene glycol often combined with vitamin B12 seems to resolve these refractory ketosis problems. However, some still remain clinically hyporectic. In these cases, some have suggested that a long-acting insulin preparation (150–200 U, IM, every 24 hours for 5 days) may be beneficial; however, there is little evidence to support this. Insulin suppresses both adipose mobilization and ketogenesis; it should be given in combination with glucose or a glucocorticoid to prevent hypoglycemia. Use of insulin in this manner is an extralabel, unapproved use.
Other therapies that may be of benefit in refractory ketosis cases are continuous IV glucose infusion and tube feeding. (Also see Fatty Liver Disease of Cattle.). In addition, limited research has demonstrated that reducing milking frequency from twice a day to once daily will reduce ketone body concentration and improve the chances of a cure, although at the expense of reduced milk production.

22/09/2022

Ketosis is a common and costly disease in dairy cattle, with both its clinical and subclinical forms associated with increased risk of other diseases and impaired production and reproduction.
Ketosis can be diagnosed with cowside blood, milk or urine tests; the most accurate method is blood measurement of BHB concentration.
Ketosis is treated with oral drenching of propylene glycol (300 g per cow, PO, every 24 hours for 3 days in mild cases and extended for 5 days in severe cases).

Etiology and Pathogenesis of Ketosis in CattleThe pathogenesis of bovine ketosis is incompletely understood; however, it...
13/09/2022

Etiology and Pathogenesis of Ketosis in Cattle
The pathogenesis of bovine ketosis is incompletely understood; however, it requires the combination of intense adipose mobilization and a high glucose demand. Both of these conditions are present in early lactation, at which time negative energy balance leads to adipose mobilization, and milk synthesis creates a high glucose demand. Adipose mobilization is accompanied by high serum concentrations of nonesterified fatty acids (NEFAs). During periods of intense gluconeogenesis, a large portion of serum NEFAs is directed to ketone body synthesis in the liver. Thus, the clinicopathologic characterization of ketosis includes high serum concentrations of NEFAs and ketone bodies and low concentrations of glucose. In contrast to many other species, cattle with hyperketonemia do not have concurrent acidemia. The serum ketone bodies are acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB).
Ketosis in Cattle
Pathogenesis of ketosis cases occurring in the immediate postpartum period is thought to differ slightly from that of cases occurring closer to the time of peak milk production.
Ketosis cases occurring close to the time of peak milk production (usually around 4–6 weeks after parturition) is sometimes described as type I ketosis. Ketosis at this time may be associated with underfed cattle experiencing a metabolic shortage of gluconeogenic precursors than with excessive fat mobilization.
Ketosis in the immediate postpartum period is sometimes described as type II ketosis. Such cases of ketosis in very early lactation (1–2 weeks postpartum) are usually associated with fatty liver. Both fatty liver and ketosis are probably part of a spectrum of conditions associated with intense fat mobilization in cattle.
The exact pathogenesis of the clinical signs is not known. They do not appear to be associated directly with serum concentrations of either glucose or ketone bodies. They may be due to metabolites of the ketone bodies.
Subclinical ketosis is defined as high serum ketone body concentrations without observed clinical signs. Subclinically affected cows are at increased risk of clinical (or more severe) ketosis, metritis, and displaced abomasum and are also less fertile than those with normal serum ketone body concentrations. Furthermore, they appear to have reduced milk production and are at increased risk of culling in early lactation.
Distinction between clinical and subclinical ketosis is unimportant in practical terms and may be difficult to determine without routine testing. Both are part of the same disease syndrome, with impacts increasing as ketone body concentrations increase. Determination of serum or whole blood BHB concentration is considered the best way to detect and monitor subclinical ketosis; however, urine or milk cowside tests can also be used in on-farm monitoring programs.
Concentrations >1.0 mmol/L (10.4 mg/dL) or 1.4 mmol/L (14.6 mg/dL) blood or serum BHB are considered diagnostic of subclinical ketosis. The standard threshold used for blood is 1.2 mmol/L (12.5 mg/dL), which corresponds to thresholds of 100 mcmol/L for milk, and 15 mg/dL (or "small" on a dipstick) for urine.
Given that ketosis is a costly disease and that treatment is efficacious, on-farm monitoring programs are cost-effective for most farms with moderate to higher prevalence. Two outcomes of monitoring programs are treatment of individual ketotic cows and evaluation of prevalence to determine effectiveness of prevention strategies at the herd level. Sudden or prolonged elevation in herd prevalence of ketosis indicates a herd-level problem and should prompt a review of nutritional and cow management.
Some farms use handheld BHB meters to test all cows in early lactation. Cows with subclinical ketosis are treated with oral drenching of propylene glycol. Such an approach is labor-intensive but has been demonstrated to reduce further disease occurrence in subclinically ketotic animals and to improve milk production in treated animals. Sound nutritional management procedures are also important. Routine milk ketone body tests are available in some countries from dairy herd improvement companies. These tests can be used to classify herd risk before considering on-farm testing programs, or as the sole source of monitoring in herds with very low prevalence (

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