Internal and external parasites of camel

04/02/2023

29/08/2022

Despite camels provide huge socio-economic advantages and are the preferred animal in the ever-changing climate, prevailing diseases, poor nutrition, traditional management systems and lack of veterinary services have hampered their potential utilization On other hand, so far camel was highly neglected by researchers and development planners (Even though camels were considered resistant to many diseases it has been proved that camels are susceptible the same as other livestock or even more to the common diseases
(Even though camels were considered resistant to many diseases it has been proved that camels are susceptible the same as other livestock or even more to the common diseases. Among these, several endo and ectoparasites have been identified as the major problems affecting the health, productivity and performance of camels
Even though both sarcoptic and chorioptic mange mites have been reported, Sarcoptic mange caused by Sarcoptes scabiei var. cameli is by far the most common, contagious and serious condition in camels

29/08/2022

Sarcoptic mange in one hu**ed-camels (Camelus dromedarius) caused by Sarcoptes scabieivarcameli is considered to be one of the most and economically important zoonotic and epizootic diseases that can spread among animals via direct physical contact with infested animal and indirectly through fomites (ropes, blankets and saddlery) especially in tropical and subtropical areas Occurrence of the disease is mostly associated with poor management and a mingling of diseased camels with healthy one's Sarcoptic mange is one of the most prevalent type of camel mange.
This result may be attributed to sever allergy and itching due to outcome of histamine liberated from damaged body cells which are compelling allergens. In addition, the higher prevalence in poor body conditioned animals might be due to trypnosomosis, worm burden and poor nutrition status which can act as predisposing factors of sarcoptic mange infestation as described. In researches done in Ethiopia, majority of the findings attribute to higher prevalence in animal with poor body condition, these results were due to cross-sectional epidemiological studies findings
The economic values of mange infested animal emanate from decreased body weight, expense of therapy, deterioration of skin due to perforation of the skin and intense pruritus as skin lesions may cover almost the entire body, and occasional mortalities in untreated and young animals . In addition, mange mite has enormous zoonotic and public health significance Moreover, mange can harshly decrease the welfare of milking animals as reducing the vitality and increased susceptibility to other diseases as a result of secondary bacterial infection. ..

29/08/2022

Sarcoptic mange in one hu**ed-camels (Camelus dromedarius) caused by Sarcoptes scabieivarcameli is considered to be one of the most and economically important zoonotic and epizootic diseases that can spread among animals via direct physical contact with infested animal and indirectly through fomites (ropes, blankets and saddlery) especially in tropical and subtropical areas .Occurrence of the disease is mostly associated with poor management and a mingling of diseased camels with healthy one's [8,9]. Sarcoptic mange is one of the most prevalent type of camel mange. ..... This result may be attributed to sever allergy and itching due to outcome of histamine liberated from damaged body cells which are compelling allergens. In addition, the higher prevalence in poor body conditioned animals might be due to trypnosomosis, worm burden and poor nutrition status which can act as predisposing factors of sarcoptic mange infestation as described. In researches done in Ethiopia, majority of the findings attribute to higher prevalence in animal with poor body condition, these results were due to cross-sectional epidemiological studies findings .. The economic values of mange infested animal emanate from decreased body weight, expense of therapy, deterioration of skin due to perforation of the skin and intense pruritus as skin lesions may cover almost the entire body, and occasional mortalities in untreated and young animals In addition, mange mite has enormous zoonotic and public health significance Moreover, mange can harshly decrease the welfare of milking animals as reducing the vitality and increased susceptibility to other diseases as a result of secondary bacterial infection. ...

29/08/2022

About the geographical presence of these interesting animals, regions in Africa have the largest proportion, 85%, of camel population in the world, 25.89 million. Maintaining and growing up such populations of camels need to provide them with suitable management. However, these animals are affected by host-specific diseases caused by different infectious agents, and GIT parasites represent a significant part of these causative agents. ..... Regarding these parasites, Haemonchus, Nematodirella, Nematodirus, Trichostrogylus, Strogyloides, Ostertagia, Marshallagia, Cooper a, Trichuris, and Camelostrongylus are considered as the major nematodes that induce these parasitic infections in the GITs of camels. Moreover, the increase of these infections are recorded in rainy periods more than that in summer. The clinical manifestation of these infections are characterized by the presence of loss of appetite, weight decrease, hair-coat disorders, anemia, edemas of limbs, and well-noticed pica.. Moreover, the increase of these infections are recorded in rainy periods more than that in summer. The clinical manifestation of these infections are characterized by the presence of loss of appetite, weight decrease, hair-coat disorders, anemia, edemas of limbs, and well-noticed pica. In Iraq, some GIT parasites that infect camels are Fasciola spp, Eimeria spp, Cryptosporidium spp, Nematodirus spp, Trichostrongylus spp, Moneizia spp, and Trichuris spp (9). ...

29/08/2022

However, the economic impact of camel production is hampered by highly contagious and zoonotic diseases, inappropriate veterinary services and feed insufficiency Of particular concern, mange was found to be the second most common parasitic disease infesting camels, preceded only by trypanosomiasis, and its zoonotic potential has been documented in several studies Clearly, mange is considered a substantial infectious and debilitating skin disease affecting camels.. Of particular concern, mange was found to be the second most common parasitic disease infesting camels, preceded only by trypanosomiasis, and its zoonotic potential has been documented in several studies. Clearly, mange is considered a substantial infectious and debilitating skin disease affecting camels Importantly, sarcoptic mange is considered the most common identified mange in camels, while chorioptic mange is rare The causative agent of sarcoptic mange in camels is Sarcoptes scabiei var. ..... Clearly, mange is considered a substantial infectious and debilitating skin disease affecting camels Importantly, sarcoptic mange is considered the most common identified mange in camels, while chorioptic mange is rare. The causative agent of sarcoptic mange in camels is Sarcoptes scabiei

30/07/2022

Gastrointestinal (GI) parasitism is a major cause of clinical disease in camelids and leads to significant economic impacts. Literature reporting on clinical parasitism of camels is localized to India, Africa, and the Middle East, with limited information available on OWCs in North America. Objectives of this study were to report on clinical presentation and diagnostic findings in Camelus bactrianus and Camelus dromedarius with GI parasitism and provide a comparative analysis between geographic regions. Medical records of OWCs presenting to two veterinary teaching hospitals (of the University of Tennessee and University of Wisconsin) were evaluated. Thirty-one camels including 11 Bactrians and six dromedaries (14 species not recorded) were included for the clinical component of this study, reporting on signalment, presenting complaint, and clinical pathology. Anorexia, weight loss, and diarrhea were the most common presenting complaint. Clinical pathology findings included eosinophilia, hypoproteinemia, and hyponatremia. For the second component of this study, a total of 77 f***l parasite examination results were evaluated for parasite identification and regional variation. Trichuris, Capillaria, Strongyloides, Nematodirus, Dictyocaulus, Moniezia, and protozoan parasites (Eimeria, Cryptosporidium, Giardia) were recorded. Strongyle-type eggs predominated, followed by Trichuris and Eimeria spp. There was a statistically significant variation in prevalence of coccidia between the two regions, with f***l examinations from Tennessee more likely to contain Eimeria (P = 0.0193). Clinicians treating camels in North America should recognize anorexia, weight loss, and diarrhea combined with clinical pathologic changes of hypoproteinemia, eosinophilia and hyponatremia as possible indications of GI parasitism. Clinicians should also consider the potential for regional variation to exist for GI parasites of camels in different areas of North America.

24/07/2022

Gastrointestinal (GI) parasitism is a significant cause of economic loss in domesticated ruminants (4) as well as pseudoruminant species, such as camelids. This is especially prevalent in geographic locations where warm temperatures and moisture are favorable to parasite transmission and survival in the environment. Parasitism is a common health concern for South American camelids in the US, causing increased morbidity and mortality with subsequent reduction in fiber quality, feed utilization, and fertility (5). Nematodes are commonly reported in South American camelids, including those that infect domestic ruminants in the US, such as Ostertagia, Trichostrongylus, and Haemonchus (5, 6). Camelid specific parasites have also been reported, such as the coccidian parasite Eimeria macusanienesis and nematodes, such as Nematodirus lamae (5, 6). A review of f***l samples in semi-captive guanacos found Nematodirus, Marshallagia, Trichuris, Strongylida, and Eimeria spp. (7). Parasitism in llamas and alpacas inhabiting North America is comparable to small ruminants, including Haemonchus contortus, Trichuris spp., and coccidia (7).
Currently there is a paucity of studies reporting clinical parasitism of OWCs in North America. The literature identifies coccidia, Cestodes, and gastrointestinal nematodes (such as Strongyloides and Nematodirus spp.) as common parasites in camels; however, this information is reported from predominantly Indian and Middle Eastern (ME) camels from Iran, Egypt, and Algeria (8–11). The objective of this study was to report the species of parasites found in camels presented to two US veterinary teaching hospitals, and to determine if there are regional differences in gastrointestinal parasites identified in f***l exam findings between the regions of the two veterinary hospitals. Additionally, another objective was to report clinical presentation and diagnostic test findings of those camels.

24/07/2022

The dromedary or one hu**ed camel (Camelus dromedarius) is the largest member in camel family. The term dromedary is derived via Greeks from dromos meaning road and thus it is directly applicable to racing and riding. This term has been use throughout the world to describe this species.

The place where this animal became domesticated is uncertain but it is probably the Arabian Peninsula. To the Bedouin of the Arabian Peninsula and northern part of Africa, the dromedary was and still is, in some parts, vital for survival in inhospitable environment. They have served the needs of Bedouin tribes, help them for thousands of years, and have provided them with food, hide, and fuel (Wernery and R***r Kadden 2002).

Dromedaries also used as beast of burden and in wars. It is written in the bible that around 1100 bc, the Bedouin tribes used dromedaries to occupy Palestine. In that time, this animal should play a more important role than in the twenty-first century, when motorized transportation became popular and food and energy reserves are dwindling (Wernery and R***r Kadden 2002).

Today there are almost twenty million dromedaries found mainly in the areas from western India via Pakistan through Iran to northern Africa and Australia. Upon the annual report of Iranian veterinary organization (IVO) in 2004, the average populations of camels in Iran were 108,000 individuals. They distributed over too many herds and camel raising areas. Most of these camel herds spread through eastern and central provinces, and ordinarily have been raised for meat purpose (Yakhchali and Athari 2010).

One of the major problems of livestock production, camel inclusive, is parasites. Numerous of parasites infected camels, many of them are responsible for enteric infection (Parsani et al. 2008).

Helminthic infections of camelids gastrointestinal (GI) tract are classified into two groups: common and occasional. A number of helminthes are camelids specific, but some are also common to other hosts, especially domestic ruminants and wild animals (Wernery and R***r Kadden 2002). As an instance among the nematodes, some appear to be practically specific to the dromedary. Camel specific nematodes are included; Haemonchus longistipes, Nematodirus mauritanicus, N. dromedarii but most of camel nematodes are also common to sheep and goats, as an instance: Trichostrongylus prololurus, T. vitrinus, Ostertagia mongolica, Marshallagiamentulata, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum venulosum (Banaja and Ghadour 1994; Wernery and R***r Kadden 2002; Parsani et al. 2008). Between these nematodes, Haemonchus spp. is the main causative agent in gastrointestinal disorder in camels. It seems that infection with other domestic animal parasites is due to grazing on common pastures (Parsani et al. 2008).

Among gastrointestinal protozoan parasites, Eimeria spp. is a major problem in camels. Five reported Eimeria spp. have capability to infected camels. these are included: E. cameli, E. pllerdyi, E. bacteriani, E. dromedarii, E. rajasthani (Yakhchali and Athari 2010; Wernery and R***r Kadden 2002). According to previous study E. droemdarii, E. rajasthani and E. cameli are pathogenic species to young camel calves (Yakhchali and Cheraghi 2007). Infection with these species might be contributing to enteric syndromes affecting camels. Coccidiosis may be seen in camel calves with symptoms like diarrhea and dysentery. There are also signs of dehydration, rough hair coat, and anemia (Parsani et al. 2008).

These gastrointestinal parasites, may assume much more significant role in camel husbandry because Parasites not only reduce the productivity and performance of camels but also predispose them to other infection diseases. Knowledge on camel husbandry management and parasitic diseases control is still very unreliable and insufficient. In Iran most available information about gastrointestinal parasites of camels are based on post mortem examination of limited numbers (Borji et al. 2010). Camel husbandry is done in different ways, however industrial breeding system in countries like Iran with wide deserts and low rainfall more profitable and this animal can be a stable supply of meat and milk by good management but most of camel owners prefer the traditional method or free-ranging system to reduce feeding costs and obtain more profits. Aim of our study was to determine prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in indigenous camels with traditional husbandry management in central deserts of Iran.

24/07/2022

Two main nematode parasites, Haemonchus longistipes and Trichostrongylus colubriformis, have been reported to cause morbidity and mortality in camels. Although goats are usually reared with camels in the combined animal husbandry system prevailing in Northern India, these parasites have not been reported in goats. Therefore, it was planned to conduct an experimental cross-transmission study of H. longistipes and T. colubriformis isolated from camels and transferred to young goats. Twelve healthy kids (5-6 months) were divided into three groups of four each. Groups I and II were infected orally with third stage infective larvae of H. longistipes and T. colubriformis cultured in the laboratory from faecal isolates from camels, at the rate of 50,000 and 100,000 larvae, respectively; group III comprised uninfected healthy controls. Daily clinical and faecal examinations were made. Body weights and blood haematological indices were measured at weekly intervals. The infection became established in both infected groups, and the animals started passing ova 17 days postinfection. Egg counts varied from 275.00 +/- 248.74 to 6150 +/- 2830.63 eggs g-1. Animals were killed 28 days postinfection. On postmortem examination mature as well as immature worms were recovered from the abomasum and intestine with typical postmortem changes seen in both the groups. Clinical manifestations were weakness and loss of body weight but no diarrhoea. There was a marked fall in haemoglobin and packed cell volume, indicating anaemia in both infected groups.

04/02/2022

07/08/2021

The chart shows the percentage reduction in roundworm egg counts following an ivermectin or doramectin pour-on treatment in ~50 beef herds across Canada. F***l samples were taken from 20 calves in the herd before pour-on treatment and 2 weeks after pour-on treatment and f***l egg counts were conducted. The different coloured bars indicate the numbers of herds in each of the following categories; less than 50%, 50-85%, 85-95% and greater than 95% reduction in f***l egg counts following treatment. From this study, we know that internal roundworm parasites are not well controlled in Canadian beef cattle and the majority of parasite burdens detected were enough to likely cause production losses.

Drug-resistant parasites are an inevitable consequence of using dewormer. The more we use these products, the more resistance develops over time. Consequently, it is important that dewormers are used in a way that maximize benefits but prevent overuse in order to maintain their efficacy in the longer term.

Prevention and control measures
A good internal roundworm parasite control program should maximize production gains, minimize disease risk but avoid haphazard and unnecessary dewormer use. The aim is to use the correct product at the correct time on the animals that need it most. The issues and practicalities of roundworm parasite control differs significantly between cow-calf, stocker and feedlot cattle as well as with the grazing and management strategies of each individual herd.

Recommended practices are outlined below however producers should consult with their veterinarians to develop a parasite control program appropriate for their specific herd and environment.

Grazing management
Avoid overstocking and overgrazing. Heavily stocked pastures leads to increased pasture contamination with infective parasite larvae. Overgrazing increases the number of parasite larvae ingested since cattle graze closer to f***l pats and closer to ground where the numbers of parasite larvae are highest.

When possible, avoid grazing the same pastures in the fall of one year and the spring of the next. Infective parasite larvae from eggs deposited in manure in fall may survive the winter on the pasture and be a source of pasture contamination for cows and calves grazing in the spring.

When possible, harrow pastures only when it’s hot and dry. Harrowing under other conditions will increase the potential exposure of cattle as infective larvae are scattered from f***l pats across the area.

Consider parasite control when planning rotational grazing strategies. For example, if a twice-over or rotational grazing system is implemented, be aware that pastures previously grazed by yearling or stocker cattle may be heavily contaminated with infective parasite larvae and so be a risk to younger cattle.

Monitor parasite burdens
Conduct f***l egg counts on your herd to assess internal roundworm parasite loads and determine which parasites you need to target. Consult your veterinarian, who can advise on sampling strategy. Collect fresh manure samples and submit to your veterinarian who can perform f***l egg counts and interpret your results. Typically, f***l samples from 20 cows in the spring and from 20 calves in the fall will provide useful information on parasite burdens in the herd and the effectiveness of current control programs. F***l egg counts are only an indirect measure of worm burdens therefore results need to be interpreted in the context of your grazing management, production practices, and parasite control regimes.

Use dewormers effectively and responsibly
Choose the correct dewormer. Common internal and external parasite controls are highlighted in Table 2 below. Each dewormer has its own strengths and weaknesses and varies in effectiveness against specific parasite species. For example, macrocyclic lactone (i.e. ivermectin) dewormers are becoming less effective against Cooperia parasites due to resistance whereas fenbendazole or albendazole are less effective against inhibited larvae of Ostertagia. External parasite control also needs to be considered. For example, ivermectin targets many external parasites whereas fenbendazole does not. Dewormers come in several formulations that differ in convenience and effectiveness including injectables, oral pastes or drenches, in-feed pellets or minerals or topical pour-on products. It is important that the correct formulation is chosen for the specific application and this will differ between herds and at different times of year.

The 5 “C’s” of Parasite Control

Use the correct product
Apply to correct class of animal
Apply at the correct time
Use the correct dose
Check for efficacy
Administer the dewormer at the correct time. Dewormers should be used strategically to minimize pasture contamination and prevent the build-up of roundworms in the cattle during the grazing season. Treatments are often given when it is convenient – when cattle are being processed - rather than at the best time for control. Consequently, in many herds, roundworm control depends on pour-on treatments applied in the fall, partly because of the need to also control external parasites. However, spring treatments can sometimes provide added benefits leading to lower roundworm burdens in the fall. Producers should consult their veterinarians to plan a strategic worm control program that balances best practice with the practical realities of herd management.

Administer the dewormer properly. Weigh cattle to ensure you administer the correct dose for the particular class of cattle you are treating. Underdosing is ineffective and leads to resistant parasites. Use the proper route of delivery for the specific product (oral, injectable, fed, topical). Follow veterinary advice and label instructions for administration, storage and withdrawal times prior to slaughter. Adhere to recommended practices in Canada’s Verified Beef Production+ on-farm food safety program. Properly dispose of expired product, empty containers and used needles.

Check the effectiveness of dewormer treatments. Do not assume a dewormer treatment has been effective. It is increasingly important to check the effectiveness of treatments to prevent parasite resistance. This can be done by taking fresh f***l samples and performing f***l egg counts approximately two weeks after deworming. Collecting and analysing 20 samples from cows and 20 samples from calves will provide a good estimate of the treatment efficacy for the group.

Biosecurity
New cattle introduced onto your farm are a source of parasites that will contaminate your pastures. Treating such cattle with a combination of dewormers from the two major drug classes (eg. Ivermectin plus fenbendazole) will minimize the risk of bringing resistant parasites into your farm. Consult your veterinarian to discuss your parasite biosecurity program.

Progressive ideas
Leave a small proportion of the herd untreated. In most well managed herds, the 10-20% of cattle that are in the best condition actually don’t benefit from dewormer treatments. This is because they only carry low worm burdens and so, if left untreated, there will be no significant reduction in herd production gains. As an added benefit, there will be less selection for drug resistant parasites as less dewormer is used and the eggs shed in the f***s of the untreated animals will “dilute” the population of resistant parasites on the pasture.

Use a combination of two dewormers. Dosing cattle with two dewormers of different classes at the same time both maximizes the effectiveness of treatment and slows the development of resistance. It is important not to mix products before dosing but to administer each sequentially, using the correct administration route and following the label instructions. Consult your veterinary surgeon to discuss using dewormer combinations as part of your herd health and parasite control programs.

Common parasite control products available in Canada
Common Parasite Control Products

Parasites Controlled

Mode of Administration

Examples of Brand Name of Products Registered for Use in Canada

Fenbendazole1

Internal Roundworms

Feed, Mineral, pellets

Oral Drench

Safeguard

Safeguard, Pancur

Albendazole1

Internal roundworms, tape worms, lung worms

Oral drench

Valbazen

Ivermectin2

Internal roundworms, eye worms, lungworms, cattle grubs, lice and mites

Topical pour-on

Injectable

Bimectin, Ivomec, Noromectin

Moxidectin2

Internal roundworms, lungworms, cattle grubs, lice and mites

Topical pour-on



Cydectin

Doramectin2

Internal roundworms, lungworms, eye worms, cattle grubs, lice and mites

Topical pour-on

Injectable

Dectomax

Eprinomectin2

Internal round worms, lungworms, grubs and mites

Injectable, sub-cutaneaous slow-release formulation

LongRange

Cyfluthrin

Horn flies, lice

Topical pour-on

CyLence

Permethrin

Horn flies, lice, Rocky Mountain wood ticks

Topical pour-on

Boss

Diazinon

Horn flies, face flies

Ear-tag

Eliminator, Protector, Optimizer

Monensin

Internal Coccidia

Feed

Rumensin, Coban, Monensin

Lasalocid

Internal Coccidia

Feed

Bovatec, Avatec,

Decoquinate

Internal Coccidia

Feed

Deccox,

Toltrazuril

Internal Coccidia

Oral drench

Baycox

*Every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information above. However, it remains the responsibility of the readers to familiarize themselves with the product information contained on the Canada product label or package insert. Ensure label directions and veterinarian instructions are followed when using any veterinary product.

The first five drugs on the list are dewormers with activity against internal roundworms.
1 Fenbendazole and albendazole belong to same drug class (Benzimidazoles).
2 Ivermectin, Doramectin, Moxidecitn belong to same drug class (Macrocyclic lactones).

07/08/2021

Key Points
In order to effectively control internal parasites in beef cattle, producers first need to know which parasites they are dealing with.
Roundworms are the most common and economically important group of internal parasites in beef cattle. Impacts can include reduced appetite and grazing behaviour, depressed weight gains, poor feed efficiency and diarrhea in calves and yearlings; and reduced milk production and reproductive inefficiency in cows. Roundworm larvae cannot survive feedlot environments so it is not a production concern there.
Adult roundworms live inside the gastrointestinal tract of adult cattle, shedding eggs in cattle manure. Eggs develop into larvae which live in pasture grass and are consumed by grazing cattle, causing the cycle to repeat itself.
Cattle under the age of two typically have the highest worm burdens and are most impacted, however internal roundworms are found in adult cattle as well.
Proper pasture management, such as avoiding overgrazing, harrowing only when it is hot and dry, and avoiding use of a pasture in the fall then the following spring, can help reduce worm burdens. Be aware that pastures last grazed by yearling cattle can affect young cattle grazing the following year.
Monitor parasite loads by collecting manure samples so your veterinarian can conduct f***l egg counts.
To reduce drug resistance in parasites, it is important to use the correct product, at the correct time, on the correct class of cattle, at the correct dosage, and then check for effectiveness.
Fall application of ivermectin may not be effective at controlling roundworms. Consult your veterinarian to determine if a spring application of another product such as fenbendazole is necessary to control roundworms.
When introducing new animals to your herd, to minimize the introduction of resistant parasites into your herd, treat new animals with parasite control products from two different classes (i.e. ivermectin and fenbendazole).
Common parasites in Canada
Internal parasites, such as roundworms and coccidia, live inside the gastro-intestinal tract whereas external parasites, such as lice and flies live on, or around, the animal. It is important that all parasites are not considered as a single group when planning control measures. Instead, both internal and external parasite control should be considered separately in consultation with a veterinarian, to ensure an overall integrated parasite control program is in place.
Before developing a parasite control program it is important to understand which parasites affect your herd and to what extent.
Common parasites in Canada
Type
Impact on Animal
Roundworms: Brown stomach worm (Ostertagia ostertagi), instestinal worms (Cooperia oncophora and punctata, Nematodirus helvetianus)
Internal
Roundworms are the most common class of internal parasites in beef cattle and impacts can be insidious. They cause depressed weight gains, poor feed efficiency, diarrhea in calves and reduced milk production and reproductive inefficiency in cows.
Lungworms (Dictyocaulus viviparous). Sporadic disease outbreaks
Internal
Lungworms in upper airways of respiratory system cause nasal discharge, coughing and difficult breathing. It is a sporadic disease in Canada but can be severe affecting both calves and adult cattle.
Fluke (flatworm) (Fascioloides magna)
Internal
Fascioloides magna has a regional distribution (eg. Foothills of Rockies, Great Lakes). It is carried by elk/deer and transmitted in wet boggy areas via semi-aquatic snails. It causes liver condemnation and impact on production poorly defined.
Tapeworms (Monezia benedeni)
Internal
Tapeworms are several metres long and are common. Segments can often be seen in manure but are not considered harmful.

Coccidia (Eimeria bovis, Eimeria zuernii and othe Eimeria spp)
Internal
Coccidiosis is caused by single celled parasites that invade and destroy cells lining the intestine. It is very common in Canada, causing acute dysentery and diarrhea, neurological signs, chronic diarrhea and reduced growth. Disease most commonly occurs in 1-6 month old calves.
Lice (Damalinia bovis, Linognathus vituli, Haematopinus eurysternus, Solenopotescapillatus)
External
There are two types of lice, biting and sucking lice. Numbers increase with cooler temperatures reaching maximum levels in late winter. Lice cause coat discolouration and hair loss, and sometimes anemia and production loss.
Stable Flies (Stomoxys calcitrans)
External
Typically affect confined livestock, but can also occur on pasture. Bites are painful and often bleed. Pain and decreased production due to reduced grazing/feeding, and animal fatigue from attempts to dislodge insects.
Horn flies (Haematobia irritans)
External
Horn flies congregate around and on cattle at pasture all summer. They bite and suck blood, affecting livestock behaviour, causing reduced performance and reduced milk production.
Cattle grubs (Hypoderma bovis, H. lineatum)
Internal & External
Ivermectin has reduced the prevalence of cattle grubs in Canada to very low levels but they are still present in localized areas. Adult female flies lay eggs in the hair of the animal which hatch into grubs and migrate deep into the tissues where a painful warble develops that causes pain to animals and holes in the tissue.
The following video explains the different types of internal parasites that affect beef cattle in Canada (16:58), the economic impact they can have (27:39), drug resistant parasites (36:54), and control strategies (40:06).