Animal Behaviour and Trauma Recovery Service UK

13/12/2024

𝗪𝗛𝗬 𝗕𝗲𝗳𝗼𝗿𝗲 𝗛𝗼𝘄 !

We always need to address the WHY before we go to the HOW. If we do not do this we risk getting the HOW part wrong. More often than not if we meet the horses needs and address the WHY the need for the “HOW do we change this” frequently fades .

It is also crucial to understand that we may never fully know why something is happening but we can learn from our animals and support them based on what we do know. It should never be about just changing a behaviour or suppressing a response.

Often the horse doesn’t need their behaviour modified they just need to be understood and supported . In addition not everything can or should be “fixed”. It is not our place to decide how long it takes to become less fearful , less defensive or to feel safe that is up to the individual whether that is a horse , a dog, a person or any other being. What we can do though is strive to meet species specific and individual needs , show up in predictable ways to the best of our abilities and be prepared to learn about and from our animals. Be open to what they bring even if that is not what we want to see , even if it’s I really don’t like being ridden or hacking alone is too hard or for your dog visitors and busy places are too overwhelming. Focus on your animal’s strengths and do all you can to accept them for who and where they are. STEP UP AND SHOW UP for your animals.

12/12/2024

Limited Time Black Friday/Christmas Co-operative Care Support Packages

These sessions are intended to support your horse with aspects of co-operative care such as hoof and leg handling, injections , worming or loading. These are NOT appropriate for horses who are phobic or really struggle with aspects co- operative care instead they are intended more as a preventative or for young horses needing a positive experience .

Examples of co-operative care packages

🐴 Hoof and leg handling
🐴 Injection prep
🐴 Wormer
🐴 Loading
🐴 Headcollar training
🐴 General spook-busting confidence building
🐴 and more

£220 for an eight week course if you pay now or 250 thereafter . Payable fortnightly or in full

I have a limited number of pay what you can sessions available
Discounts for charities
20% off NHS and Emergency Services

Assessment at your yard lasting approximately 2-3 hours.

One or two sessions per week 2-2.5 hours (I am able to work with your horse in your absence if you are unable to do so. I will send video and photo updates.

OR

Bespoke programme designed for you

WhatsApp support between sessions
Individualised support plan
Information pack
Support plan
WhatsApp support
Liasion with your vet where necessary

This is a limited time offer in January price rises to £220 but £250 if you book now.

If you feel this may be of help. Please get in touch via WhatsApp 07763317464

12/12/2024

This looks amazing

will have a bold and topical programme that will see industry leaders, veterinary professionals and charity representatives initiating discussions on important issues affecting the future of equestrianism.

Find out more here: https://www.nationalequineforum.com/nef25-launch-threats-and-opportunities/

12/12/2024

𝗟𝗲𝘁𝘀 𝗧𝗮lk 𝗧𝗶𝗺𝗶𝗻𝗴 !! 𝗧𝗶𝗺𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗜𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗿𝘃𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻?

In the horse and dog behaviour and training industries we spend a great deal of energy emphasising the importance of timing, which of course is essential if we are reinforcing new behaviours. However, we first need ask ourselves

🐴🐶 What needs are not being met?
🐴🐶 What support do they need?
🐴🐶 Are they physically and emotionally well?
🐴🐶 Who is the trained behaviour for?
🐴🐶 is it essential to the animal’s physical and emotional well being or safety in the human world?

The more neglected question is the timing of the therapeutic intervention

🐴🐶 Have they had sufficient time to decompress?
🐴🐶 In discussion with the vet would medication be helpful?
🐴🐶 Have they had the opportunity for building trust with human caregivers?
🐴🐶 Have they had enrichment opportunities that are tailored to them and are they living in an enriched environment.
🐴🐶 Do they have agency and control over their environment and interactions?
🐴🐶 Has their brain had sufficient recovery time?

It is crucial to understand that without this it is harder for improvement to happen. Recent research has shown that after a period of stress reduction of eight weeks structural changes in amygdala grey matter density ( Holzel et al,2010). However, it is important to account for how differences in stress exposure could impact recovery time.

Improvements were found in brain microstructure integrity predominantly within fibre tracts involving corticostriatal networks (Meng et al 2018) after a two year period. These networks are vital for a wide range of motor, affective (emotional), sensory and cognitive functions (Gomez-Ocadiz et al 2022). This lead to reduced symptoms and enhanced resilience.

References

Gómez-Ocádiz, R., Trippa, M., Zhang, C. L., Posani, L., Cocco, S., Monasson, R., & Schmidt-Hieber, C. (2022). A synaptic signal for novelty processing in the hippocampus. Nature Communications, 13(1), 1-15.

Hölzel, B. K., Carmody, J., Evans, K. C., Hoge, E. A., Dusek, J. A., Morgan, L., ... & Lazar, S. W. (2010). Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience, 5(1), 11-17.

Meng, L., Shan, T., Li, K., & Gong, Q. (2021). Long-term tract-specific white matter microstructural changes after acute stress. Brain imaging and behavior, 15, 1868-1875

©️Jessie Sams (2024) Animal Behaviour and Trauma Recovery Service

10/12/2024

This webinar with the brilliant Dr Amber Batson of Understand Animals was outstanding. So much to process and highlighting the complexity and plasticity of the body and the brain and as always the important of early life experiences and exposures to Giardia and other pathogens and disease. I will have to watch it again.

This webinar will look at what Giardia is, how it affects dogs and in turn, how that may influence their behaviour.

The interplay between gut health and Giardia infection in our pets is complex. The interplay between inflammation and other gut change & behaviour in our pets is also complex.

Amber will use up to date science presented in a practical way to consider the relevance of this common issue in our dogs and what we can do once the issue is suspected or identified.

https://bit.ly/3BdTgKm...

10/12/2024

Low Stress Handling for Animals and Humans

This is what low stress handling and medical management looks like for humans. I have been battling an intractable migraine for days. I find medical environments really terrifying I am vomit phobic (think attempting to jump out of a moving vehicle because someone threw up or pulling a drip out of my arm when I had sepsis in an attempt to escape) so being here is really hard. So what does low stress compassionate human medical care look like for me :

🏥 Being allowed to wait outside while my mum registers me. Although due to my presentation this was not possible . They found me somewhere quiet to do an initial assessment.

🏥 Being allowed to wait in a different part of the hospital outside of the main A and E department . Today we are sitting in the car. Fingers crossed they are able to find a room with a door .

🏥 Last time I was here. I had word finding difficulties. Thanks to the highly skilled paramedic for anticipating and noticing my signs of rising panic . When this started to happen one of the very kind and experienced paramedics immediately moved me to a quieter side room.

🏥 Allowing my mum to wait in A and E on my behalf to come and get me when my name is called. While this was not required today this has worked well previously it minimises my distress and reduced any disruption and worry I may cause anyone else .

🏥 My mum being allowed to be with me at all times for social support during discussions with nurses and doctors . She can explain when I am too overwhelmed.

🏥 The nurse chatting to distract me while she asks questions and takes my obs

🏥Distraction allowing myself to access Facebook and other simple things to help me to relax and take me mind off of the pain and the environment. My brain is foggy so I cannot focus to read or do anything that requires me to heavily use my brain cells to think

🏥 Music to drown out noise

🏥 Being allowed to close doors during assessments with doctors to reduce outside noise and external stimuli.

🏥While there is often a lot of talk about humans being able to verbally relay our experiences of physical or emotional pain and distress this is not always true and some individuals may need to have support to do so such as children , vulnerable adults or indeed anyone who is highly distressed.

🏥 Just because a need has been expressed it is not a guarantee that this need can be met.

For our animals this might look like

🐶 Being examined outside of the vets in the car or in the car park if safe to do so.

🐶 Being examined on the floor as opposed to on the table

🐴🐶 Horses and dogs being in an environment that is quiet and where they feel safe.

🐴🐶 OBSERVE and ANTICIPATE signs of tension . Go slowly and take action BEFORE tension rises and fearful behaviour escalates . Just as the very experienced paramedic did for me today.

🐴🐶Handle the horse or dog in away where they feel they have control over their body . Perceived control is very IMPORTANT so for example holding their leg in a way that while still secure gives them the feeling of not being heavily restrained .

🐴🐶 If we cannot give the animal the chance to “assent” then we should have an indicator that there is no opportunity to say “no”. We can establish this with practice by using it for events where we need to finish a task we can start small and then once the association is learned we use it in emergencies . This could be something like a visual cue such as a flower pot or cone (something you do not usually use), an item of clothing that you wear only for these occasions , a different headcollar or harness or a word or phrase like code red .

AVOID THE USE OF STATIONARY BEHAVIOURS WHERE THE ANIMAL MAY FEEL TRAPPED.

DO NOT USE AN INITIATOR SIGNAL OR START BUTTON FOR A COMPULSORY PROCEDURE WHERE THE ANIMAL DOES NOT HAVE CONTROL.

🐴🐶 Social support from another horse or from a familiar trusted human for both species. (Of course this is not true in cases where infection may be a risk).

🐴🐶 While it is ideal you are with your animal if you are extremely anxious and distressed yourself have someone more calm hold them .

🐴🐶 Slightly altering the context for example not using a halter

🐴🐶 Making sure the animal is relaxed at the start of the procedure this will improve the effectiveness of any sedation delivered.

🐴🐶 Stopping if the animal is too distressed and the treatment is non-essential and trying again at a later date.

🐴🐶 Telling the animal what is going to happen . Talking calmly will have a beneficial effect on us too . Allowing us to be emotionally available.

🐴🐶 Utilising topical anaesthesia to reduce pain on needle placement

🐴🐶 If possible and appropriate using a distraction such as food (if allowed ) that they have to forage for in your hand, lickimat, sniffing a toy , a scratch etc

🐴🐶 Stress cycle completion this might include where appropriate gentle movement, sniffing (for both species), access to a lickimat , access to a chew , gentle touch if the animal likes this and for horses the opportunity to graze.

This is not an exhaustive list and each animal is an individual so what helps one won’t support another . I will add references when I can think .

Finally apologies to those of you who have vet referrals pending . I will do my best to finish these in the next couple of days . Thank you for your patience .

Lastly a reminder that if you work for the NHS or Ambulance Service you receive 20% off across all of my services and free muzzle fittings. Thank you for everything you do !!

References

Carroll, S. L., Sykes, B. W., & Mills, P. C. (2022). Moving toward fear-free husbandry and veterinary care for horses. Animals, 12(21), 2907.

Danielle Bolm, R. V. T. Low-Stress Veterinary Visits for Horses.

Carroll, S. L., Sykes, B. W., & Mills, P. C. (2022). Moving toward fear-free husbandry and veterinary care for horses. Animals, 12(21), 2907.

Pagliara, E., Nicolo, A., Rossi, C., Cammaresi, C., Donadio, G., & Bertuglia, A. (2021). Transdermal application of anesthetic preparations is effective in increasing mechanical nociceptive threshold at perineural injection sites in horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 103, 103689.

Pearson, G., Waran, N., Reardon, R. J., Keen, J., & Dwyer, C. (2021). A Delphi study to determine expert consensus on the behavioural indicators of stress in horses undergoing veterinary care. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 237, 105291.

Williams, T., Carroll, A., & Montrose, V. T. (2019). Environmental methods used by veterinary centres to reduce stress of cats and dogs during practice visits. The Veterinary Nurse, 10(1), 47-52.

©️Jessie Sams (2024) Animal Behaviour and Trauma Recovery Service

10/12/2024

Musings on Socialisation and Individualised Responses to Chronic Stress or Trauma

Young beings whether they are children or other animals need safety and to have their emotional and physical needs met. They need opportunities for developmentally appropriate socialisation that allows for individual variation. I struggle with the idea that inappropriate socialisation not having the potential to traumatise some individuals ( species aside) to not have the exposure to stimuli that you require in the right time frame leaves them unprepared and at the very least puts them at risk of experiencing unnecessary extra stress due to being unprepared and lacking the necessary skills they need to attempt to navigate their social and physical environment (Palestrini,2009). I also wonder how overall there has been an enormous shift in the socialisation of puppies to tailoring to the individual that just isn’t reflected in the horse world. Overall it seems patience runs out by the time they are around two years old and they are expected to navigate the world as an adult horse would. When in fact they need just as much empathy and attuned handling and care as we can give in our human way which of course may not be perfect. It is important to also acknowledge differences in social support and the quality of the environment the individual lives in and how this might influence how they cope. Indeed, coping is not static it can be impacted by numerous factors.

It is important to recognise that responses to psychological trauma will differ markedly between individuals. Some individuals who experience some or all of these risk factors age at the time, frequency and duration of the abuse or other traumatic event or events, stimulus deprivation or lack of socialisation and attachment rupture may demonstrate little or no symptoms of severe stress or poor coping (Bonano and Mancini,2010, Bonnanno,2012) whereas others may have only one risk factor but be extremely debilitated and struggle to function. (Cantor, 2009).

The reasons for these vulnerabilities are not yet fully understood in humans or other animals, but they are multifactorial and include genetics, early development, rearing environment and current environments among others. In those individuals who experienced, perhaps, just a single event but did not cope well, it may be that their current environment is sub-optimal or social support is lacking thereby interfering with recovery. The majority of traumatized animals, likely experienced multiple periods of traumatic events or chronic stressors over time as opposed to one single traumatic event. (Kessler,2000, McMilan,2017, Dietz et al,2018, Overall,2013).

It is important to remember, though, that different individuals who were subjected to identical conditions will NOT necessarily respond in the same way. For example, in two dogs or horses rescued from an identical situation, one may find trusting humans incredibly challenging and be incredibly impaired taking many months to feel relaxed receiving the most basic handling, human interactions and care. In contrast, another horse or dog may function far better living a near-normal life perhaps even being ridden or as a well-adapted family pet. Both animals lived in the same appalling conditions but recovery took a different trajectory and time frame.
Just as we humans, they are all unique with their perceptions and responses to their experiences (Yehuda and LeDoux,2007).

References

Bonanno GA, Mancini AD. 2010. Beyond resilience and PTSD: mapping the heterogeneity of responses to potential trauma. Psychol. Trauma. In press

Bonanno, G. A. Uses and abuses of the resilience construct: Loss, trauma, and health-related adversities, Social Science and Medicine. 2012; 74: 753-756. (PubMed Abstract).

Burattini, B., Fenner, K., Anzulewicz, A., Romness, N., McKenzie, J., Wilson, B., & McGreevy, P. (2020). Age-related changes in the behaviour of domestic horses as reported by owners. Animals, 10(12), 2321.

Cantor, C. (2009). Post-traumatic stress disorder: evolutionary perspectives. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 43, 1038–1048.
Dietz, L., Arnold, A.M.K., Goerliech-Jansson and Vinke,C.M. (2018), The importance of early life experiences for the development of behavioural disorders in domestic dogs. Behaviour Vol.155, 83-144.

Kessler, R. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder: The burden to the individual and society. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 4–14.

McMillan, F. D. 2017. Behavioural and psychological outcomes for dogs sold as puppies through pet stores and/or born in commercial breeding establishments: current knowledge and putative causes. Journal of Veterinary Behaviour. 19: 14-26, accessed April 11, 2017, DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2017.01.001.

Overall, K. L (2013). Manual of Clinical Behavioural Medicine for Dogs and Cats. Elsevier Mosby, St. Louis, Missouri.

Palestrini, C. (2009). Situational sensitivities. In BSAVA manual of canine and feline behavioural medicine (pp. 169-181). BSAVA Library.

Yehuda, R. & LeDoux, J. Response variation following trauma: a translational neuroscience approach to understanding PTSD. Neuron 56, 19–32 (2007).

©️Jessie Sams 2024 Animal Behaviour and Trauma Recovery Service

09/12/2024

Context in all species is crucial

Understand the context.

09/12/2024

All of these

09/12/2024

This is so very true

"Ethical reasons prevent scientists from researching whip use"

09/12/2024

𝗦𝘂𝗽𝗽𝗼𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗬𝗼𝘂𝗿 𝗧𝗿𝗮𝘂𝗺𝗮𝘁𝗶𝘀𝗲𝗱 𝗗𝗼𝗴 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗧𝗶𝗺𝗲𝗳𝗿𝗮𝗺𝗲𝘀

A study published in 2022 by Collins et al, found that dogs who had been exposed to neglect, abuse and severe lack of socialisation or a combination of these were more vulnerable to developing moderate to severe fearfulness than dogs not exposed to these adverse experiences. It is important to understand that both genetics and environment play a role in fear and trauma responses to neglect, abuse and sub-optimal socialisation (McMillan,2017).

Dogs who were moderately or extremely fearful, especially of home environments and people experienced a poorer quality of life overall and had decreased chances of being adopted. These dogs were also at increased risk of euthanasia.

When a multifaceted rehabilitation programme included enrichment, play, positive interactions with people and training protocols such as systematic desensitisation and counter-conditioning the dogs’ fearfulness was shown to reduce.

The study showed it took approximately 96 days for fearfulness to subside and for shelter dogs to meet adoption criteria.

Incorporating the principles of trauma-informed care can increase empathy and build understanding that trauma may have a role to play in more extreme responses and that previous potentially traumatic experiences influence current behaviour ( Corridon et al,2024,) It is crucial to understand that going at a dogs’ pace, supporting their sense of safety, taking time to build a relationship and allowing them to process information is an important part of rehabilitation ( Brando
& Norman,2023).

Therefore giving dogs time is an important part of successful rehabilitation.

References

Brando, S., & Norman, M. (2023). Handling and training of wild animals: evidence and ethics-based approaches and best practices in the modern zoo. Animals, 13(14), 2247.

Collins, K., Miller, K., Zverina, L., Patterson-Kane, E., Cussen, V., & Reid, P. (2022). Behavioural rehabilitation of extremely fearful dogs: Report on the efficacy of a treatment protocol. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 254, 105689.

Corridan, C. L., Dawson, S. E., & Mullan, S. (2024). Potential Benefits of a ‘Trauma-Informed Care Approach to Improve the Assessment and Management of Dogs Presented with Anxiety Disorders. Animals, 14(3), 459.

McMillan, F. D. (2017). Behavioural and psychological outcomes for dogs sold as puppies through pet stores and/or born in commercial breeding establishments: Current knowledge and putative causes. Journal of veterinary behavior, 19, 14-26.

©️Jessie Sams Animal Behaviour and Trauma Recovery Service

08/12/2024

𝗖𝗼𝗳𝗳𝗲𝗲 𝗖𝗵𝗿𝗼𝗻𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲𝘀 𝟭,

𝗜 𝗳𝗼𝗿𝗴𝗼𝘁 𝘁𝗼 𝗽𝗼𝘀𝘁 𝘆𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗱𝗮𝘆

𝗧𝗼𝗱𝗮𝘆𝘀 𝗿𝗲𝗳𝗹𝗲𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗶𝘀 𝘁𝗼 𝗴𝗶𝘃𝗲 𝘆𝗼𝘂𝗿 𝗮𝗻𝗶𝗺𝗮𝗹 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝘆𝗼𝘂𝗿𝘀𝗲𝗹𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗴𝗶𝗳𝘁 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗶𝗺𝗲!!

𝗜𝘁 𝘁𝗮𝗸𝗲𝘀 𝗮𝘀 𝗹𝗼𝗻𝗴 𝗮𝘀 𝗶𝘁 𝘁𝗮𝗸𝗲𝘀 !!

08/12/2024

08/12/2024

Cheeky reshare

MYTH BUSTING: I HAVE GOT MY EYE ON YOU: TWO EYES FOR RESPECT !!

I have read some fantastic posts debunking the myth of making your horse give you two eyes, two eyes are better than two heels, or two eyes equals respect, one of these posts was written by the brilliant Evolving Equestrian. So I wanted to add my take on this myth. The two eyes myth is another enormous misinterpretation of equine behaviour. In fact, this myth has no grounding whatsoever in the equine ethogram. An ethogram is a comprehensive list of behaviours that are normal for species when they are living under natural conditions. Essentially two eyes for respect is a misunderstanding of equine social behaviour Horses bond through proximity and space sharing, MUTUAL movement and MUTUAL touch (Kieson, Lundgren & Abrams,2019; Wolter et al.,2020, Rees,2018). It also disregards equine anatomy, given horses have eyes positioned on the sides of their head as opposed to forward-facing eyes like humans or dogs.

Go outside and look at your horse; consider what such a command or cue might mean or not mean for your horse, who experiences the world differently to you. Indeed, they are not like dogs for whom gaze is an important part of communication although it does have some role (Brubaker et al,2019, Gould et al,2022, Tornqvíst et al,2020). With this in mind, it is likely horses experience gaze differently although of course it is possible to train this behaviour. Typically, this is trained with the heavy application of aversive stimuli or punishment . In addition these types of interactions are agonistic or aggressive towards the horse. Under normal circumstances, in agonistic horse/ horse interactions , the horse on the receiving end of agonistic behaviour will move away , this is a strategy to reduce conflict and a part of their communication. Lack of space, unstable groupings and the addition of novel food (Pierad et al,2019) can act to raise arousal making exaggerating these behaviours. Horses may also vary in how expressive they are as individuals. Repeatedly chasing a horse or not letting them stop until they face forwards put the human in the position of aggressor. It is in no way an affiliative strategy!! It also strikes me as ironic that respect is demanded of horses or indeed any other species, when they constantly have their space and bodies intruded upon by humans. Indeed, horses frequently have their discomfort and requests for space entirely ignored or they are touched irrespective of how uncomfortable they are. In addition, they may also be punished for showing discomfort or distress particularly if a horse shows aggression or defensive behaviour .

So How Do Horses See the World?

The equine eye is one of the largest of all land dwelling animals. The ability to monitor their surroundings has been crucial to their survival. Their vision is designed to offer them superior threat detection, allows them to monitor the location of other herd members and enables them to swiftly escape should the need arise (Rorvang et al,2020). Unlike humans, dogs or other predator species, the horse as prey species possesses a field of vision that offers them a panoramic view as opposed to a much narrower , binocular view (Hanggi,2007,Macuda & Timney,1999). Horses are able to see 350 degrees around their head (Mills & Nankervis,2013) with a single blind spot (Hangii,2007).

With this in mind, it is vital to understand that from the horse’s point of view eye contact and gaze such as that required by “two eyes for respect “ may not have the same meaning or relevance to the horses. In fact, it is an incredibly anthropocentric (human-centred) lens that misinterprets equine behaviour and anatomy. Typically, two eyes for respect involves the heavy application of negative reinforcement (pressure/relief) where the horse learns to make the chasing STOP by turning to face and look at the trainer or person. Considering the idea of a horse “respecting our space” irrespective of the fact respect itself is a purely human construct, horses frequently have their bodies and space invaded by the humans in their lives. Often having vulnerable areas of their bodies touched when they are not comfortable with it. Indeed, many activities such as leading or hoof and leg handling involve the horse losing their sense of agency and control of their movement and bodies, whilst these activities may be necessary it’s worth considering the horse’s perspective. Perhaps with our human understanding of respect we should acknowledge each horse’s comfort level and preferences for touch and distance. As humans perhaps we could make use of affiliative strategies like mutual movement which are relevant to the horse as opposed to asking for gaze or two eyes which holds no significance.

References and Resources

Brubaker, L., Bhattacharjee, D., Ghaste, P., Babu, D., S**t, P., Bhadra, A., & Udell, M. A. (2019). The effects of human attentional state on canine gazing behaviour: a comparison of free-ranging, shelter, and pet dogs. Animal cognition, 22(6), 1129-1139.

Fureix, C., Bourjade, M., Henry, S., Sankey, C., & Hausberger, M. (2012). Exploring aggression regulation in managed groups of horses Equus caballus. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 138(3-4), 216-228.

Gould, K., Iversen, P., Sikkink, S., Rem, R., & Templeton, J. (2022). Persistence and gazing at humans during an unsolvable task in dogs: The influence of ownership duration, living situation, and prior experience with humans. Behavioural Processes, 104710

Hanggi, E. B., Ingersoll, J. F., & Waggoner, T. L. (2007). Color vision in horses (Equus caballus): Deficiencies identified using a pseudoisochromatic plate test. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 121(1), 65.

Hanggi, E. B., & Ingersoll, J. F. (2012). Lateral vision in horses: A behavioral investigation. Behavioural processes, 91(1), 70-76.

Hartmann, E., Christensen, J. W., & McGreevy, P. D. (2017). Dominance and leadership: useful concepts in human–horse interactions?. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 52, 1-9.

Hausberger, M., Roche, H., Henry, S., & Visser, E. K. (2008). A review of the human–horse relationship. Applied animal behaviour science, 109(1), 1-24.

Henry, S., Sigurjónsdóttir, H., Klapper, A., Joubert, J., Montier, G., & Hausberger, M. (2020). Domestic Foal Weaning: Need for Re-Thinking Breeding Practices?. Animals, 10(2), 361.

Kieson, E., Lundgren, K., & Abramson, C. I. Preliminary Findings of Observations of Affiliative and Stress Behaviors in Large Horse Herds with Variations in Resources. In 15th Annual Conference for the International Society for Equitation Science, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.

Macuda, T., & Timney, B. (1999). Luminance and chromatic discrimination in the horse (Equus caballus). Behavioural Processes, 44(3), 301-307.

McGreevy, P., Oddie, C., Burton, F. L., & McLean, A. N. (2009). The horse–human dyad: Can we align horse training and handling activities with the equid social ethogram?. The Veterinary Journal, 181(1), 12-18.

Mills, D. S., & Nankervis, K. J. (2013). Equine behaviour: principles and practice. John Wiley & Sons.

Pierard, M., McGreevy, P., & Geers, R. (2019). Effect of density and relative aggressiveness on agonistic and affiliative interactions in a newly formed group of horses. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 29, 61-69.

Rees, L. (2017). Horses in Company. The Crowood Press.

Rørvang, M. V., Nielsen, B. L., & McLean, A. N. (2020). Sensory abilities of horses and their importance for equitation science. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 633.

Sigurjónsdóttir, H., & Haraldsson, H. (2019). Significance of group composition for the welfare of pastured horses. Animals, 9(1), 14

Törnqvist, H., Somppi, S., Kujala, M. V., & Vainio, O. (2020). Observing animals and humans: dogs target their gaze to the biological information in natural scenes. PeerJ, 8, e10341.

©️Jessie Sams (2022) Animal Behaviour and Trauma Recovery Service