Foundation Equine Training

21/01/2025

The Ethical Responsibility of Sponsors in Equestrian Sport

Equestrian sport thrives on partnerships—between horse and rider, and also between athletes and their sponsors. But sponsorship comes with a responsibility to uphold the values of the sport, including the welfare of its equine athletes.

Recently, concerns have grown over the culture within the FEI, where rules designed to protect horse welfare are often ignored, and abusive riding techniques are rewarded.

as a prominent equestrian sponsor, surely should have an ethical duty to take a stand.

By aligning their brand with riders under scrutiny, they risk endorsing harmful behavior.

Sponsors must demand accountability, advocate for fair judging, and promote humane training methods.

True leadership in equestrianism begins when sponsors prioritize welfare over profits. The future of our sport—and its horses—depends on it.

Photo by Crispin Parelius Johannessen of GB rider Charlotte Fry on Everdale

20/01/2025

✨ Why Does Arousal Matter in Horse Training? ✨

In light of my recent 🍆dropping post, I think it's time to talk about arousal in training. In my latest podcast episode and blog post, I tackle the often misunderstood topic of arousal and affective states in horse training.

🔹 What is Arousal?
Arousal refers to an organism’s physiological and psychological state of alertness or activation. It exists on a spectrum:

Low arousal: Drowsiness, lethargy.

Moderate arousal: Focused, engaged, optimal for learning.

High arousal: Excitement, stress, or agitation.

Physiological markers include changes in heart rate, respiration, cortisol levels, and pupil dilation. These levels directly influence your horse’s ability to focus, respond to stimuli, and learn effectively.

Observable behaviors CAN indicate high arousal levels:

Dogs: Barking (excitement or stress).

Humans: Flushed cheeks (embarrassment, surprise, etc.).

Horses: Pawing, and yes, even geldings and stallions "dropping."

🔹 What is Valence?
Valence describes the emotional value of an experience:

Positive valence: Joy, curiosity, contentment.

Negative valence: Fear, frustration, sadness.

Arousal and valence work together to create an affective state. Examples include:

High arousal + positive valence: Excitement, playfulness.

High arousal + negative valence: Fear, aggression.

Low arousal + positive valence: Calmness, relaxation.

Low arousal + negative valence: Sadness, disengagement.

🔹 Why It Matters for Horse Training
Horses learn best in a moderate arousal state with positive valence:

Positive states encourage engagement and exploratory behaviors.

Negative states often result in avoidance, defensiveness, or impaired learning.

🔹 Balancing Arousal Levels in Training

For low arousal: Use novel stimuli, higher-value reinforcers, or increased energy in your own movements to engage your horse.

For high arousal: Reduce distractions, use calming techniques, reinforce calming signals, and focus on short, achievable goals.

🎉 Ready to Learn More?
I cover this topic in depth in my latest podcast episode and blog post, where I also share actionable tips, visuals, and research studies that explain how to apply these principles to your training sessions.

🔗 Listen now: https://open.spotify.com/episode/1faPWQ3H3O4bL98jkauPI4?si=Gdqf8evmR7u8NjH43p8y9Q
🔗 Read the blog: https://www.greenwaltequine.com/blog

🔹 The Science Behind It

Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The Relation of Strength of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit-Formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18(5), 459–482.
Summary: This seminal study investigated how varying levels of electric shock (as a stimulus) affected the learning speed of Japanese dancing mice in a discrimination task. The researchers discovered that mice exposed to moderate levels of shock learned the task more quickly than those exposed to very low or very high levels of shock. This observation led to the formulation of the Yerkes–Dodson Law, which posits an inverted U-shaped relationship between arousal and performance: optimal performance is achieved at moderate levels of arousal, while too little or too much arousal can hinder performance.

Starling, M. J., Branson, N., Cody, D., & McGreevy, P. D. (2013). Conceptualising the Impact of Arousal and Affective State on Training Outcomes of Operant Conditioning. Animals, 3(2), 300–317.
Summary: This paper explores how an animal's arousal and affective (emotional) states influence the effectiveness of different operant conditioning techniques. The authors introduce "response landscapes," three-dimensional models that depict the probability of desired behaviors occurring under various combinations of arousal and affective states. The study emphasizes that training efficacy is maximized when animals are in a positive affective state with moderate arousal levels. It also highlights the necessity of tailoring training approaches to individual animals, considering their unique emotional and arousal conditions.
Direct link: https://doi.org/10.3390/ani3020300

Bray, E. E., MacLean, E. L., & Hare, B. A. (2015). Increasing Arousal Enhances Inhibitory Control in Calm but Not Excitable Dogs. Animal Cognition, 18(6), 1317–1329.
Summary: This study examines how arousal levels affect inhibitory control in dogs with different temperaments. The researchers found that increasing arousal improved inhibitory control in dogs characterized as calm but did not have the same effect on dogs identified as excitable. These findings suggest that the relationship between arousal and performance is influenced by individual temperament, aligning with the Yerkes–Dodson Law's principle that optimal arousal levels for performance vary among individuals.
Direct link: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-015-0901-1

Cohen, R. A. (2011). Yerkes–Dodson Law. In J. S. Kreutzer, J. DeLuca, & B. Caplan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology (pp. 2737–2738). Springer.
Summary: This encyclopedia entry provides an overview of the Yerkes–Dodson Law, discussing its historical background, empirical support, and applications in various fields, including psychology and neuroscience. It elaborates on how the law explains the relationship between arousal levels and performance, emphasizing that while moderate arousal can enhance performance, too much or too little arousal can be detrimental.

Direct link: https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1348
Haverbeke, A., Laporte, B., Depiereux, E., Giffroy, J. M., & Diederich, C. (2008). Training Methods of Military Dog Handlers and Their Effects on the Team’s Performance. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 113(1–3), 110–122.
Summary: This study investigates the impact of different training methods used by military dog handlers on the performance and welfare of the dogs. The findings indicate that positive reinforcement techniques are associated with better performance outcomes and lower stress levels in dogs, whereas aversive methods can lead to increased stress and reduced effectiveness. The study underscores the importance of considering the affective state of animals in training programs to optimize performance and well-being.

Direct link: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2007.11.009
Mendl, M., Burman, O. H. P., & Paul, E. S. (2010). An Integrative and Functional Framework for the Study of Animal Emotion and Mood. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277(1696), 2895–2904.
Summary: This paper presents a framework for understanding animal emotions and moods, integrating findings from behavioral, cognitive, and neurophysiological studies. It discusses how affective states influence decision-making processes in animals and proposes methods for assessing these states. The framework aids in comprehending how emotions and moods can affect learning and behavior, which is crucial for developing effective and humane training practices.

Direct link: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.0303
Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. Oxford University Press.
Summary: In this comprehensive work, Jaak Panksepp explores the neural mechanisms underlying emotions in humans and animals. He identifies primary emotional systems in the brain and discusses their evolutionary significance. Understanding these systems provides insight into how affective states are generated and regulated, which is essential for applying concepts like the Yerkes–Dodson Law in animal training to ensure that training methods align with the animals' emotional capacities and promote positive welfare outcomes.
Direct link to the book: https://global.oup.com/academic/product/affective-neuroscience-9780195096736

Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (2007). The International Affective Picture System (IAPS) in the Study of Emotion and Attention. Handbook of Emotion Elicitation and Assessment, 29, 70–73.
Summary: This chapter discusses the development and application of the International Affective Picture System (IAPS), a standardized set of images used to study emotion and attention. The IAPS has been instrumental in research exploring how emotional stimuli affect physiological responses and behavior, contributing to the broader understanding of affective states and their impact on cognitive processes. While not directly related to animal training, the methodologies discussed have parallels in assessing and interpreting affective responses in animals.
https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203867333-11/international-affective-picture-system-iaps-study-emotion-attention-margaret-bradley-peter-lang

Eysenck, M. W. (1982). Attention and Arousal: Cognition and Performance. Springer-Verlag.
This book explores the intricate relationship between arousal, attention, and cognition, providing an in-depth analysis of how variations in arousal levels influence performance on cognitive tasks and learning processes. Eysenck integrates psychological and neuroscientific perspectives to explain the mechanisms underlying arousal and its effects on behavior.
https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=tOxVBgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1891&dq=Eysenck,+M.+W.+(1982).+Attention+and+Arousal:+Cognition+and+Performance.&ots=lB2NUF4Drj&sig=42gJjTI8t89oFhoWFnruqOFvNz0 =onepage&q&f=false

17/01/2025

Affective states play a crucial role in an animal's motivation to learn and engage with their environment and positive and negative affective states can significantly alter cognitive processes and behavioural responses.

Positive affective states generally enhance motivation to learn and explore.
Animals in positive states tend to:

➡️ Show increased curiosity and willingness to engage with novel stimuli

➡️ Exhibit more optimistic cognitive biases when interpreting ambiguous cues

➡️ Demonstrate greater behavioral flexibility and problem-solving abilities

➡️ Display higher levels of playfulness and social engagement

In contrast, negative affective states often diminish motivation and learning capacity.

Animals in negative states may:

➡️ Become less responsive to environmental stimuli

➡️ Interpret ambiguous cues more pessimistically

➡️ Show reduced exploratory behaviour and environmental engagement

➡️ Exhibit symptoms of anhedonia (loss of pleasure-seeking behaviour)

Learned helplessness is a prime example of how negative experiences can profoundly alter affective state and motivation. The important distinction here is that the animal no longer tries to cope – it simply gives up and becomes dull.

This was demonstrated in Seligman and Maier's seminal experiments with rats and dogs, when repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive stimuli led to a deterioration of cognitive, emotional and motivational attributes.

Dogs that experienced inescapable shocks later showed intense hyper-reactivity followed by passivity when presented with avoidable shocks, unlike dogs who had previous experience with controllable shocks or no shock exposure.

Animals that lack control over their environment or experience chronic unpredictable stressors are at higher risk of developing learned helplessness and associated depression-like symptoms.

By recognising the impact of positive and negative experiences on an animal's cognitive and emotional state, we can work to create environments and training approaches that promote positive affective states and enhance motivation to learn.

10/01/2025

06/01/2025

04/01/2025

The first in a new series of video lecture discussions on equine sciences, talks about how the hoof affects the musculoskeletal system and vice versa. With i...

03/01/2025

02/01/2025

❄️🐴 How Do Horses Stay Warm in Winter? 🌨️

Horses are naturally equipped to handle cold weather with unique adaptations that help them conserve heat and stay cozy. From their hair coat to their digestive system, they’ve got tools to help them thrive in winter conditions.🐎❄️

While they’re built for the cold, extra care—like proper forage, shelter, and monitoring—can help support them all winter long.✨

Want to learn more about how horses stay warm and how to support them during the colder months? Visit our article:

🇺🇸 https://madbarn.com/feed-horse-in-winter/
🇨🇦 https://madbarn.ca/feed-horse-in-winter/

23/12/2024

19/12/2024

From time to time we report on a new scientific study and see some of the same comments asking questions or posing suppositions about how the research was done

07/12/2024

06/12/2024

A PERSPECTIVE ON LIBERTY TRAINING

Many people are attracted to liberty training because they perceive it as gentle and indicating a special relationship between horse and human. But let’s be clear about this. All liberty training began as non-liberty training. To get a horse to a stage of education that it can be worked to a reasonable degree of performance (not just hooking on) requires initially using non-liberty techniques.

I have seen many videos of horses being worked at liberty. They are either being ridden bareback and with no headgear or working on the ground without ropes or halters. Sometimes the trainer uses whips, flags, and food treats to direct the horses, but sometimes not. Some people work in small-ish yards and others work in large open spaces. Sometimes multiple horses are worked together while other times it is just one horse. The variety of maneuvers performed is almost limitless from flying changes every stride to several horses galloping side-by-side on a beach.

Nearly every time I see these videos or watch demonstrations at horse expositions, the overwhelming consensus of the general horse-loving public is “Wow”! People are amazed at the bond they presume exists between a horse and a human for the horse to perform such stunts without equipment to control them.

But in my view, there are pluses and minuses to training and working at liberty.

To begin with, let me say that the biggest positive to working a horse at liberty is that it reveals all our flaws. When we screw up in our liberty training, it’s obvious to the entire world. This is especially true in the early stages of training. In the later training, it may not be so obvious because most horses have learned enough about their job to fill in for our mistakes. But when a horse is still figuring out what is being asked, it doesn’t take much screwing up on our part for everything to unravel very quickly.

The second aspect of liberty work that I like is that it is fun. It’s lots of fun for us. I don’t think it is necessarily more fun for horses than non-liberty work, but it is fun for us. I think that’s an important reason for training at liberty because after all, working with horses is meant to be fun.

The only other plus of liberty work that I can think of is there is less wear and tear and expense on gear. But for somebody like me who has never owned good or expensive equipment, that’s not a big advantage.

But there are downsides to liberty work too – big ones. In my experience, it is rare to see horses working well or contented when performing liberty work. It’s rare enough to see when the gear is used, and almost unseen when the gear is not used.

I believe this is because most training (of any kind) concerns itself with obedience. Gear is designed to provide clarity to a horse. So when the gear is missing two things can go wrong. The first is that when we are training a horse intending to perform at liberty we tend to drill obedience at the expense of okay-ness. By its nature, liberty work requires a high degree of obedience (because the gear is not available to impose obedience), which means we often focus on the movement more than the emotions that accompany the movement.

The second issue relates to what I described above as the biggest positive of liberty work. Having no gear available when a horse makes a mistake does show our flaws, but it also makes the job of correcting a horse’s mistakes more difficult and often a lot less subtle.

One of the statements I hear a lot from people impressed with liberty training is “But the horse could run away if he didn’t like it.” But this is naive. Most horses would never volunteer to load into a trailer or stand quietly for a dentist, yet many do despite their troubled feelings.

It is tempting to put that sort of thinking down to people thinking like humans and not like horses. But in truth, it is not people thinking like people, it is people not thinking at all.

The reason why we can ride horses is because our training makes their mind so malleable that we can convince them of most things. This includes believing that at liberty they are trapped in their performance just as much as if we were using the harshest bits, the biggest spurs, the strongest ropes, and the highest fences. For some horses, this is how liberty training can feel.

I’m not suggesting that all liberty training is abusive, just like not all non-liberty training is abusive. But I do believe there is nothing so special about liberty training that it should be looked at with blind awe. Bad training or bad riding should not get a pass just because it is done at liberty. There is no point in liberty work if it is not held to the highest standard we would use for judging non-liberty training.

I am far more impressed by a trainer who can ask a horse to offer a relaxed and balanced trot whether or not the horse is wearing gear than I am by a trainer who has taught a horse fancy movements that are incorrect and accompanied by worry but with no gear.

I want to be clear that training and working horses at liberty can be great and indicate good work. But it can also be the opposite. It is not automatically true that being able to work with a horse at liberty is a sign of good training or a special relationship.

Photo: At a clinic Laura is working Tas at liberty to help create interest in her to improve his focus and give him clarity.

05/12/2024

Operant conditioning is learning by consequences of actions. For example, the horse learns not to touch an electric fence because it will receive a shock, or it learns to eat apples because they taste good.

This type of learning involves voluntary behaviours that result in rewards or the avoidance of aversive outcomes.

Understanding the principles of operant conditioning can significantly enhance our ability to train horses effectively and humanely.

Operant conditioning consists of three core elements, known as the operant contingency:
- Cue: The stimulus that prompts the animal to act
- Operant response: The voluntary behaviour performed by the animal
- Reward: The consequence that reinforces the behaviour

For example, when a horse is being ridden, the rider's leg pressure serves as the cue, the horse's lateral movement is the operant response, and the relief from pressure acts as the reward.
Edward Thorndike pioneered the study of operant conditioning through his experiments with cats in puzzle boxes. His work challenged the prevailing belief that animals needed to understand a problem to solve it, introducing the concept of "trial-and-error learning with accidental success".

B.F. Skinner further developed the field in the 1930s with his invention of the Skinner box, which allowed for more controlled studies of instrumental conditioning. Skinner coined the term "operant conditioning" to describe how behavior operates on the environment to produce consequences.

Operant conditioning is often described using four quadrants, which represent different ways to influence behaviour.

The four subsets include positive punishment, negative punishment, positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. However, from the perspective of training, it would be useful to add a 𝐟𝐢𝐟𝐭𝐡 subset, and that is 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝 𝐫𝐞𝐢𝐧𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭.

Combined reinforcement is simply the act of using both negative and positive reinforcement in tandem in order to amplify reinforcement.

Adapted from ESI publications Modern Training Volume 2 and Equitation Science 2nd Edition (both available in our online shop).

04/12/2024