Purely Positive Training

12/02/2025

Both punishment and reinforcement are central to operant conditioning because they can be applied as consequences of behaviour.

Many trainers who claim not to use negative reinforcement are simply confused by its unpleasant connotations.

In the scientific study of cognition and ethology, negative is used in the arithmetic sense referring to the subtraction or removal of something from the animal's world, while positive refers to an addition.

Negative reinforcement differs from positive reinforcement not least because of the point at which stimulus control is achieved.

When using positive reinforcement, trainers may wait until the shaped behaviour is offered before expecting it to come under stimulus control.

Instead, with negative reinforcement they are obliged to begin each pressure with a light version of the signal to prevent distress arising from the pressure and thus rapidly focus the horse on the light signal.

Horses cannot be expected to learn well if reinforcement is delayed, because the delay prevents them from relating the reinforcement to the behaviour.

Previous work has shown that horses have short-term spatial recall of less than 10 seconds in a delayed-response task. It is also necessary to obtain the same results in multiple locations for the behaviour to become generalised and not context-specific.

- Equitation Science Volume 2
Andrew McLean, Paul McGreevy, Janne Whinther Christensen & Uta König von Borstel.

05/02/2025

A 2017 study, 𝘕𝘰𝘴𝘦𝘣𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘜𝘴𝘦 𝘪𝘯 𝘌𝘲𝘶𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘢𝘯 𝘚𝘱𝘰𝘳𝘵𝘴 – 𝘈𝘯 𝘐𝘯𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘯𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘢𝘭 𝘚𝘵𝘶𝘥𝘺 by Orla Doherty et al., examined the effects of noseband tightness in competition horses.

The study found that 44% of competition horses in dressage and eventing had nosebands tightened so much that it was impossible to insert the ISES taper gauge under the noseband, effectively classified as zero fingers’ tightness. Only 7% of nosebands were fitted at the recommended level of two fingers’ tightness.

The widespread use of restrictive nosebands raises concerns about potential welfare consequences for horses.

⚠️ 𝗣𝗵𝘆𝘀𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗗𝗮𝗺𝗮𝗴𝗲 𝗖𝗮𝘂𝘀𝗲𝗱 𝗯𝘆 𝗢𝘃𝗲𝗿-𝗧𝗶𝗴𝗵𝘁𝗲𝗻𝗲𝗱 𝗡𝗼𝘀𝗲𝗯𝗮𝗻𝗱𝘀

The study highlighted several potential consequences of excessive noseband tightness, including:

𝗘𝘅𝘁𝗿𝗲𝗺𝗲 𝗣𝗿𝗲𝘀𝘀𝘂𝗿𝗲 𝗼𝗻 𝗙𝗮𝗰𝗶𝗮𝗹 𝗧𝗶𝘀𝘀𝘂𝗲𝘀 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗡𝗲𝗿𝘃𝗲𝘀: Tight nosebands exert high pressure on the soft tissues of the face, particularly over prominent bones such as the nasal and jaw bones. This pressure can lead to discomfort, pain, and tissue damage.

𝗧𝗶𝘀𝘀𝘂𝗲 𝗗𝗮𝗺𝗮𝗴𝗲 𝗳𝗿𝗼𝗺 𝗦𝘂𝘀𝘁𝗮𝗶𝗻𝗲𝗱 𝗣𝗿𝗲𝘀𝘀𝘂𝗿𝗲: Research suggests that sustained pressure above 350 mmHg can cause tissue damage. Some tight nosebands have been recorded exceeding 1,400 mmHg, well beyond the threshold for safe pressure levels. The pressures exerted by tight nosebands can exceed levels known to cause pain and tissue damage in humans and other animals.

𝗡𝗲𝗿𝘃𝗲 𝗗𝗮𝗺𝗮𝗴𝗲 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗟𝗼𝘀𝘀 𝗼𝗳 𝗦𝗲𝗻𝘀𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻: Excessive compression of facial nerves can lead to neural damage. In extreme cases, this may result in denervation, which can cause a loss of sensation in parts of the face. Trigeminal neuritis, a condition linked to head-shaking in horses, has also been associated with nerve compression.

𝗕𝘂𝗰𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗨𝗹𝗰𝗲𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗟𝗮𝗰𝗲𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻: When the mucosa inside the horse’s mouth is pressed against sharp molars due to a tight noseband, ulceration and laceration may occur, causing pain and potential infection.

𝗥𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗿𝗶𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝗡𝗼𝗿𝗺𝗮𝗹 𝗕𝗲𝗵𝗮𝘃𝗶𝗼𝘂𝗿𝘀: Horses use mouth movements to respond to bit pressure, adjust the position of the bit, and express discomfort. Overly tight nosebands can prevent these behaviours, potentially leading to increased stress and discomfort.

𝗣𝗼𝘀𝘀𝗶𝗯𝗹𝗲 𝗜𝗺𝗽𝗮𝗰𝘁 𝗼𝗻 𝗕𝗿𝗲𝗮𝘁𝗵𝗶𝗻𝗴: The study referenced concerns that tight nosebands may restrict nasal expansion, which could impact a horse’s ability to breathe freely, particularly during strenuous exercise.

04/02/2025

Our mini course 'How Horses Learn' costs just AU $79.99

This one hour theory-based course was designed for riders, coaches and trainers of all levels and disciplines to provide a thorough introduction to how horses learn, as well as equine ethology and biomechanics.

This course is designed to teach the fundamentals of successful horse training in an interesting and enjoyable format with interactive features, animations and knowledge checks throughout.

https://esi-education.com/courses/how-horses-learn/

02/02/2025

Horses are often praised with tactile stimuli, chiefly with a scratch at the withers or a pat on the neck.

Caressing the horse at the wither region lowers heart rate and increases the duration of relaxed behaviour, so this activity provides an easy reward.

Horses have evolved to find grooming one another (allogrooming) rewarding, so a scratch on an appropriate part of the body is a primary reinforcer.

By comparison, the far more common practice of patting or slapping horses on the neck, if too forceful, can even be aversive or at best neutral to the horse.

Patting is reinforcing only if the owner has coupled the pat with something inherently pleasant.

Horses have not evolved to be motivated to offer certain responses for pats on their necks.

Therefore patting, if it is going to be used at all, should be conditioned as a secondary reinforcer - and secondary reinforcers should be carefully trained if they are to become effective as rewards.

Equitation Science 2nd Edition
By Andrew McLean, Paul McGreevy, Janne Whinther Christensen & Uta König von Borstel.

📖 The full text is available for purchase from our website.

31/01/2025

29/01/2025

A study by Niittynen et al. (2022) examined the relationship between oxytocin levels and behavioural responses during foundation training in 19 young horses through five foundation training sessions over nine months.

They measured salivary oxytocin and cortisol levels before and after training sessions, as well as recording behavioural responses during training.

The team found that horses exhibiting more cooperative behaviours towards their trainers, such as nuzzling or seeking contact, showed increased salivary oxytocin levels. Conversely, horses that displayed signs of discomfort during training experienced a decrease in salivary oxytocin.

The study also revealed interesting differences between green yealings and more experienced 2-3 year old horses.

The yearlings undergoing initial training, had higher salivary cortisol concentrations compared to their more experienced counterparts.
This suggests that the training process may be more stressful for horses encountering it for the first time.

As the training progressed, the researchers observed a decrease in both salivary cortisol levels and fearful behaviours across all of the horses.

This indicates that horses generally became more comfortable and less stressed as they became accustomed to the training routine. Oxytocin may play a role in promoting positive human-horse interactions, while cortisol levels reflect stress experienced during the training process.

Understanding these physiological changes could potentially help trainers develop more effective and welfare-friendly training methods for horses.

Full study ➡️ Acute changes in oxytocin predict behavioral responses to foundation training in horses" by Niittynen et al., published in 2022 in the journal Applied Animal Behaviour Science.

27/01/2025

Training is just like learning language. You start with single words speaking slowly, and as time goes on the words can come together faster.

Similarly with horse training, or any other animal training for that matter, responses can be gradually elicited faster once the horse responds habitually.

However, like words, signals should never be concurrent. They must always be slightly separated by a moment of time even in the most experienced horse.

Andrew McLean
Modern Horse Training Volume 2

Now available for purchase on our website!

23/01/2025

Horses are very efficient information processors, and they have an excellent eidetic memory (photographic memory). However, there is no evidence that a horse actually reflects on his memory.

Expecting the horse to have the same mental abilities as humans is an unfair expectation and along with it may come feelings of retribution or punishment when humans believe that the horse should ‘know better“

The horse does not have an ‘aha!’ moment during learning like humans do, unless they have been presented with the same or similar task.

Instead, horse learning requires repetitions, which gradually reduce to form habitual responses to stimuli.

Horses require that the trainer has excellent timing in reinforcement because rewarding or punishing behaviours past the moment of the act are futile and create stress.

Andrew McLean - Modern Horse Training Volume 2
Now available for purchase on our website!

23/01/2025

"The horse learns to associate the visual stimulus of the handler walking with the persistence of his own go response. This is a maintenance aid, analogous to the effect of the rider’s seat in maintaining the go aid under-saddle. Here we are trying to detrain the tendency of the horse to move forward when we do. Instead, we want him to learn to go only from the lead aid, but then to maintain walking by associating with the handler’s steps. We don’t want him to initiate walking by cues from our movement because
there are countless times when we want to move without the horse moving. For example, going around the horse to do up his girth. Removing this confusion can have astounding effects on inducing
relaxation. So, try to keep in mind that the first signal the horse should sense is the lead-rein pressure and not your forward movement. Changing an established habit can be difficult, but the benefits for the horse in making his world predictable are huge."

( reference: Academic Horse Training - Andrew & Manuela McLean )

22/01/2025

INDIVIDUAL STABLING FOUND TO ALTER IMMUNE RESPONSE

Research has found that horses moved from group housing to individual stabling showed changes in their white blood cell counts and plasma cortisol levels. These changes could mean they are at a higher risk of infectious disease.

Equine scientists at the University of Hohenheim in Germany studied 12 warmblood geldings aged 2-3 years old during several management changes, monitoring their behaviour and immune response.

The horses used were all living in a group, turned out at pasture. For the first part of the study the group was then split into two, each kept in a separate paddock so that the horses in one group could not see the others. After a trial period of eight days all the horses were returned to their original group, living together. They were then were left out at pasture for eight weeks.

For the second part of the study the horses were all moved into individual stables, where they could see and touch their neighbours through bars. During the first week of being stabled, the horses were given 30 minutes of turnout in an indoor area. From the second week onwards, the horses were lunged.

Throughout the study the research team collected blood samples from the horses to analyse their immune cell numbers and cortisol concentrations.

The results showed that moving the horses to individual stabling led to acute stress-induced immune changes. However, dividing the larger group into two smaller groups at pasture did not.

“The number of eosinophils, monocytes and T cells declined, whereas the number of neutrophils increased resulting in an increased N:L ratio. This pattern of change resembles the well-known picture of an immunomodulation induced by acute social stress."

The plasma cortisol concentrations didn’t change after dividing the group into the two smaller groups at pasture, but there was an increase in cortisol concentrations one day after stabling which then returned to the previous levels eight days later. However, the researchers reported that “Although cortisol concentrations returned to baseline level after 8 days, the alterations in most immune cell numbers persisted, pointing to a longer-lasting effect on the immune system of the horses."

The team also found that some of the horses started to perform stereotypical behaviours as soon as one week after stabling.

The team reported that the results “strongly indicate that social isolation is a chronic stressor with negative impact on welfare and health of horses and highlight the advantage of group housing systems in view of immunocompetence."

The researchers concluded that “relocation to individual stabling represented an intense stressor for the horses of the present study, leading to acute and lasting alterations in blood counts of various leukocyte types. In contrast, fission of the stable group did not result in behavioural, endocrine or immunological stress responses by the horses."

This sudden change from group turnout to individual stabling with training being introduced is a very common scenario for horses being started for the first time. This study gives us yet more evidence that stabling horses individually is stressful for them and detrimental to their physical and psychological wellbeing. The majority of the horses I see are stabled for the bulk of the day. I do wonder how much evidence is needed before horse owners, yard owners and professionals act on this information and change their management to increase turnout and group living...

The research is free to access and is a very interesting read: Schmucker S, Preisler V, Marr I, Krüger K, Stefanski V (2022) Single housing but not changes in group composition causes stress-related immunomodulations in horses. PLoS ONE 17(8): e0272445.

21/01/2025

The small differences between the horse and human brain have large consequences for the way we train them. As humans, we tend to assume a horse can think ahe...

19/01/2025

In the wake of the tragic LA fires, this study by Copelin et al. (2024) on blindfolding horses raises important considerations for handling horses in emergency situations.

While blindfolding has been traditionally suggested as a technique for handling horses in emergencies, this study challenges that assumption.

The study found that blindfolded horses generally required more time and greater lead rope pressure for handling, and displayed higher frequencies of avoidant and active refusal behaviors compared to unblindfolded horses.

From a welfare perspective, these findings suggest that blindfolding may increase stress and anxiety in horses during handling, potentially compromising their well-being.

The increased heart rates observed in blindfolded horses further supports this concern.

However, the study also noted that blindfolding could be beneficial when navigating visually frightening stimuli, indicating that the technique may have situational benefits.

The research highlights that in time-sensitive emergency scenarios, such as barn fire evacuations, blindfolding is likely to increase lead time and difficulty of handling. This could not only impede rescue efforts but also put both human and animal lives at greater risk, raising significant welfare and safety concerns.

The study emphasises the need for more research into emergency horse handling protocols and suggests that alternative methods, such as regular practice of evacuation procedures, may be more effective in ensuring horse welfare during crisis situations.

Copelin, C, Hayman, B, Bergeron, R, Merkies, K,. Compliance or confusion? The usefulness of blindfolding horses as a handling technique,

Applied Animal Behaviour Science, (2024) Vol 271,106180

17/01/2025

Affective states play a crucial role in an animal's motivation to learn and engage with their environment and positive and negative affective states can significantly alter cognitive processes and behavioural responses.

Positive affective states generally enhance motivation to learn and explore.
Animals in positive states tend to:

➡️ Show increased curiosity and willingness to engage with novel stimuli

➡️ Exhibit more optimistic cognitive biases when interpreting ambiguous cues

➡️ Demonstrate greater behavioral flexibility and problem-solving abilities

➡️ Display higher levels of playfulness and social engagement

In contrast, negative affective states often diminish motivation and learning capacity.

Animals in negative states may:

➡️ Become less responsive to environmental stimuli

➡️ Interpret ambiguous cues more pessimistically

➡️ Show reduced exploratory behaviour and environmental engagement

➡️ Exhibit symptoms of anhedonia (loss of pleasure-seeking behaviour)

Learned helplessness is a prime example of how negative experiences can profoundly alter affective state and motivation. The important distinction here is that the animal no longer tries to cope – it simply gives up and becomes dull.

This was demonstrated in Seligman and Maier's seminal experiments with rats and dogs, when repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive stimuli led to a deterioration of cognitive, emotional and motivational attributes.

Dogs that experienced inescapable shocks later showed intense hyper-reactivity followed by passivity when presented with avoidable shocks, unlike dogs who had previous experience with controllable shocks or no shock exposure.

Animals that lack control over their environment or experience chronic unpredictable stressors are at higher risk of developing learned helplessness and associated depression-like symptoms.

By recognising the impact of positive and negative experiences on an animal's cognitive and emotional state, we can work to create environments and training approaches that promote positive affective states and enhance motivation to learn.

16/01/2025

14/01/2025

The University of Córdoba has shed new light on the genetic makeup of Polo Argentino horses, potentially leading to improved breeding practices in the sport of polo.

The team of researchers, led by Dr. F. Azcona, tested 520 Polo Argentino horses and 30 purebred Thoroughbreds, focusing on six genetic markers associated with behaviour, muscular development, and body size.

According to the study, 99% of Polo Argentino (PA) horses showed a TT genotype for the MSTN gene, compared to only 66% in Thoroughbred (TB) horses.

These findings, published in the Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, reveal surprising genetic trends that challenge conventional assumptions about polo horse breeding.

Despite the sport's demands for quick bursts of speed and agility, the study found that most (99%) of Argentinian Polo's carried the endurance-associated TT genotype known for stamina over rapid speed.

This unexpected finding challenges a common assumption that the sprinter-type CC genotype would be preferential for polo performance.

The prevalence of the endurance genotype in Argentine Polo’s might be attributed to the fact that the breed is a cross between thoroughbred’s and Criollo horses — a breed famous for long-distance endurance and hardiness.

Combining the speed and agility of thoroughbreds with the hardiness and stamina of Criollos has resulted in horses that have unique genomic profiles which contribute to exceptional performance in polo — a sport where short bursts of speed are combined with the need for sustained performance over multiple chukkas.

The research also uncovered significant differences between Polo Argentino and thoroughbred polo horses in genes related to behaviour (DRD4) and body size (LCORL), indicating that decades of careful selection for one purpose have led to a genomic differentiation in the polo breed.

Full study: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0737080624001047