Treatment and prevention of common camel disease

22/02/2023

The BVDV is one of the numerous pestiviruses that infect domesticated and wild ruminants, camelids, and pigs worldwide. For cattle farmers, infection results in commercial losses due to lower growth weight, reduced milk supply, reproductive losses, and mortality. Aerosol transmission is considered the most effective mode of BVDV transmission in camelids. The virus is primarily transmitted by inhalation or ingestion (45), is present in all bodily fluids and excretions, and can transfer from mother to fetus. Fever, mouth ulcers, anorexia, diarrhea, abortion, general poor health, and birth abnormalities are some possible symptoms (46).

One-time testing cannot provide a definitive diagnosis of chronic BVDV infection in camelids. Although the BVDV antigen ELISA test is used to diagnose chronic BVDV infections in bovines, it is unknown whether a comparable interpretation of the results in camelids would be valid. As a result, chronic infections in camelids should be determined by virus identification via PCR or viral isolation in samples collected over 3 to 4 consecutive weeks (47).

Prevention and control
No BVDV vaccine is currently approved for use in camelids, although several vaccines are available for use in cattle. Vaccines cannot prevent infection, but they do lessen the clinical symptoms of illness (48). Vaccinating camelids is not currently recommended, pending further studies. Inappropriate vaccination may prevent accurate diagnostic testing and the capacity to identify infected camelids.

22/02/2023

The RVF is a severe mosquito-borne viral infection [genus Phlebovirus, family Bunyaviridae that affects animals (lambs, camels, and cattle) as well as humans in the Arabian Peninsula and Sub-Saharan Africa. Camelids have frequently been linked with RVF epidemics in East Africa and Egypt. RVF produces severe sickness in camels, with fever, weakness, abnormalities, infertility, and an increased death rate, especially among younger camels. Signs and symptoms of RVF are ocular discharge, tongue hemorrhages, and trough edema
Reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) can identify the virus in the blood (during infection) and tissues. The presence of RVFV is also confirmed by an enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA), which shows the presence of IgM autoantibodies that appear rapidly as an effective response to an acute infection and IgG antibodies which last for many years
Prevention and control
Many types of vaccines are available. Because of the necessity for several doses, inactivated or killed vaccines are unsustainable for regular field immunization. One of the oldest and most commonly used vaccines for managing RVF in Africa is the modified live Smithburn vaccine, which requires only a single dosage; however, it has been linked to birth abnormalities and miscarriages in pregnant calves, and it may only provide camels modest protection against RVF infection
MP-12, a live-attenuated vaccine, has shown encouraging results in laboratory testing . Moreover, the live-attenuated Clone 13 vaccine has been approved for use in South Africa. Alternative immunizations based on recombinant molecular structures are now being investigated, with promising results. Camels showed a robust and long-lasting neutralizing immune response after receiving a single dose of the live CL13T RVF vaccine, demonstrating that the product is safe to use with no notable negative effects in the vaccinated camels
Treatment
Tilorone in vitro inhibited both the vaccine (MP-12) and the pathogenic (ZH501) strains of RVFV at low micromolar concentrations. In a mouse model, tilorone treatment significantly improved the survival outcomes of BALB/c mice exposed to RVFV ZH501. An 80% survival rate was achieved when 30 mg/kg/day was administered immediately after infection. One day after infection, 30% of animals administered tilorone at 45 mg/kg/day survived (31). Oral favipiravir (200 mg/kg/day) prevented death in ≥60% of hamsters challenged with RVFV when administered within 1 or 6 h of exposure and decreased initial RVFV titers in serum and tissues. Ribavirin (75 mg/kg/day) relieved some symptoms of peracute RVFV illness
While pre-treatment with glucan was useful in identifying antiviral medicines to prevent RVFV, the most promising results were observed for the interferon inducer polyriboinosinic–polyribocytidylic acid complex with poly-l-lysine and carboxymethylcellulose [poly(ICLC)]. Ribavirin and poly(ICLC) have demonstrated the ability to prevent sickness in hamsters. Rhesus monkeys infected with RVFV had lower viremia after receiving ribavirin (50 mg/kg loading dose, then 10 mg/kg every 8 h for 9 days). Ribavirin also reduced viral production in infected cell cultures . Intramuscular administration of recombinant leukocyte A interferon and Sendai virus-induced human leukocyte interferon to RVFV-infected rhesus monkeys prevented viremia and hepatocellular damage . Curcumin was shown to be effective against highly virulent ZH501 and inhibited viral multiplication in infected animals' livers . Several other effective drugs against RVFV include suramin, sorafenib, sorafenib, rapamycin and 5,6-dimethoxyindan-1-one

22/02/2023

Camel contagious ecthyma (CCE) is a highly contagious viral disease with a 38% fatality rate that mostly affects young camels, causing calf debility. Caused by a poxvirus (genus Parapoxvirus, family Poxviridae), CCE is distinguished by pustular lesions around the mouth, lips, and buccal cavity, and head swelling . The disease is distinguished by a rapid onset and lesion development. PCR targeted to the RPO30 gene is the most often used assay for samples from skin scrapings or pustules . Negative contrast electron microscopy, immunofluorescence, and immunoperoxidase assays are also employed.
Prevention and control Vaccination using CCE virus-containing material appears promising. However, immunization with vaccinia virus and a vaccine against infectious ecthyma in sheep and goats did not protect camels from infection
Treatment Traditional therapies include cauterization of regional lymph nodes, the application of sesame oil and heated milk, and plant tar. Topical or systemic broad-spectrum antibiotics for 3–5 days prevent subsequent bacterial infection. Antipyretics, antihistamines, and multivitamins are also helpful in minimizing the consequences of the infection . Administering the preferred NSAID flunixin (1 mg/kg) intramuscularly once daily may be recommended

22/02/2023

Camelpox is an extremely infectious skin disorder and the most common infectious viral illness of camels, occurring in most regions where camel farming is common. The camelpox virus (CMLV; genus Orthopoxvirus, family Poxviridae), the cause of this infectious disease, is closely related to the variola virus. The genes associated with viral replication activities and most of those important in additional host-related processes are identical in the two viruses
Symptoms of camelpox are fever, skin lesions, and lymph node inflammation. Pox lesions of different stages may form, most notably on the face, throat, and near the tail. The disease may be diagnosed based on clinical symptoms, although camel contagious ecthyma and camel papillomatosis induce similar symptoms . Multiple diagnostic methods are available, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the most rapid diagnostic tool for detecting the characteristic, brick-shaped orthopoxvirus in tissue samples or skin lesions . Immunohistochemistry can also be informative. PCR may be used to confirm the presence of viral nucleic acid, and DNA restriction enzyme testing can be used to identify specific strains of the CMLV
Prevention and control The infection, like smallpox in humans, may be controlled by separating diseased camels and injecting the remainder with the standard vaccinia virus vaccine or the recently developed CMLV vaccine, available live attenuated and inactivated. A booster vaccine dose is recommended for young camelids inoculated before 6–9 months. The inactivated vaccine can be injected yearly , and the live attenuated vaccine provides long-term protection.
A live attenuated candidate vaccine was produced in Sudan using a local strain of CMLV and assessed in a small-scale field study for safety and efficacy in experimental camels . Most tests revealed that the proposed vaccine is effective, safe, and can control the infection. Most vaccines are produced from the CMLV strains Ducapox 298/89, Jouf-78, VD47/25, and CMLV-T8. The attenuated Jouf-78 strain has been found to provide complete protection against CMLV (17). A new vaccine developed from serial multiplication of the KM-40 virus strain on the chorioallantoic membranes of 11-day-old embryonated chicken eggs has the potential to protect against camelpox in Old World camelids (Camelus dromedaries and Camelus bactrianus)
Treatment General non-specific treatment for infected camels is the administration of 10 mg/kg oxytetracycline and 0.2 mg/kg meloxicam for 5 days . A spray containing gamma benzene hexachloride, proflavine hemisulphate, cetrimide, eucalyptus oil, turpentine oil, and neem oil can also be used for wound therapy and fly control . Other ethnopharmacological applications are also widely used to treat camelpox . In humans, cidofovir would likely be beneficial in the treatment and short-term prevention of smallpox and kindred poxvirus infections, as well as the treatment of vaccinia sequelae in immunocompromised individuals Cidovir and its acyclic nucleoside phosphonate derivatives have shown promising therapeutic potency against camelpox

22/02/2023

With a global population of about 35 million in 47 countries, dromedary camels play a crucial role in the economy of many marginal, desert areas of the world where they survive under harsh conditions. Nonetheless, there is scarce knowledge regarding camelsʼ parasite fauna which can reduce their milk and meat productions. In addition, only scattered information is available about zoonotic parasites transmitted to humans via contamination (e.g. Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Balantidium coli, Blastocystis spp. and Enterocytozoon bieneusi), as foodborne infections (e.g. Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spp. and Linguatula serrata) or by arthropod vectors (Trypanosoma spp.). Herein, we draw attention of the scientific community and health policy-making organizations to the role camels play in the epidemiology of parasitic zoonotic diseases also in the view of an increase in their farming in desert areas worldwide.

How ever camels are refractory for most infectious disease there are important disease in camel some

22/02/2023

About 65% of the articles on zoonotic pathogens of camels published between 1970 and 2018 focused on Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), hydatidosis, brucellosis and Rift Valley fever [7]. Camel echinococcosis is the most studied zoonotic parasitic infection affecting humans but Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium spp., Fasciola spp., Trichinella spp. and Linguatula serrata originating from camels are also considered as major public health risks [7]. Relatively few parasites of camels are specific for this host species [8], whereas many others that infect camels are (i) non-zoonotic but with a large host range; or (ii) of zoonotic concern. Transmission of zoonotic parasites includes different routes of infection such as faecal contamination (e.g. Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Balantidium coli, Blastocystis spp., Enterocytozoon spp.), or consumption of raw or undercooked infected tissues and milk (e.g. Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spp., Linguatula serrata).

In addition, camels serve as reservoir hosts for Trypanosoma evansi, or may be infected by gastropod-borne trematodes (e.g. Fasciola spp., Dicrocoelium dendriticum and Schistosoma spp.) or metacestode larvae of zoonotic tapeworms, such as Echinococcus granulosus (s.l.). Moreover, camels are a blood source for several haematophagous ectoparasites, such as ticks and fleas, which ultimately may transmit zoonotic viral and bacterial pathogens (e.g. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Coxiella burnetii, Anaplasma spp., Rickettsia spp., Bartonella spp. and Yersinia pestis) [9]. These parasites and infections have been detected in camels in Asia and Africa while there is not much known about the parasite fauna of camels in Australia (see section “Parasites of camels in Australia” below). The current taxonomic status of the zoonotic parasites discussed in this article is shown in

22/02/2023

Many pathogenic viruses infect camels, generally regarded as especially hardy livestock because of their ability to thrive in harsh and arid conditions. Transmission of these viruses has been facilitated by the commercialization of camel milk and meat and their byproducts, and vaccines are needed to prevent viruses from spreading. There is a paucity of information on the effectiveness of viral immunizations in camels, even though numerous studies have looked into the topic. More research is needed to create effective vaccines and treatments for camels. Because Camels are carriers of coronavirus, capable of producing a powerful immune response to recurrent coronavirus infections. As a result, camels may be a suitable model for viral vaccine trials since vaccines are simple to create and can prevent viral infection transfer from animals to humans. In this review, we present available data on the diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventative strategies for the following viral diseases in camels, most of which result in significant economic loss: camelpox, Rift Valley fever, peste des petits ruminants, bovine viral diarrhea, bluetongue, rotavirus, Middle East respiratory syndrome, and COVID-19. Although suitable vaccines have been developed for controlling viral infections and perhaps interrupting the transmission of the virus from the affected animals to blood-feeding vectors, there is a paucity of information on the effectiveness of viral immunizations in camels and more research is needed. Recent therapeutic trials that include specific antivirals or supportive care have helped manage viral infections.

16/09/2022

Brucellosis treatment in camel
In addition, milking camels were given OTC-intramammary infusion at a rate of 10 ml/teat every 2 days for 8 days. This regimen was found to be effective in eliminating the shedding of Brucella organisms by camels, with no relapse. Moreover, all treated camels became seronegative within 16 months after treatment.

16/09/2022

Brucellosis in camels
Clinical information:
Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease which is caused by gram‑negative bacteria from the Brucella genus. Brucella is classified as risk group III by the WHO. The species Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis were identified in camels. The disease was first described in 1931. Even though clinical symptoms are generally mild in camels, Brucella can be transmitted to humans via fresh milk or raw meat and turn into a serious health problem in the affected regions.
Camels of the species Camelus bactrianus and Camelus dromedarius are often infected with Brucella, especially if they live in direct vicinity of infected ruminants such as cattle, sheep or goats. Entry sites for Brucella are the lungs, intestinal tract, mucous membranes and skin. The pathogen travels via the blood to various organs such as liver, spleen, or the haematopoietic system. Experimental infection of camels with Brucella abortus led to mild clinical symptoms, e.g. inappetence, minimal lameness due to arthritis, and bilateral lacrimation. Orchitis and epididymitis occurred with Brucella abortus and Brucella melitensis. Retained placenta (retentio secundarium), placentitis, infections of the urogenital tract, abortion with mummification, and infertility were also observed. The economic loss due to miscarriage, decreased milk production and reduced fertility is significant.
Diagnostics:
Reliable diagnosis can only be achieved by direct detection of Brucella in the affected tissue, e.g. from the placenta or lymph nodes. This procedure, however, is complicated, and also constitutes a potential infection risk for the laboratory staff. For this reason, various serological test systems for the detection of antibodies against Brucella have been developed, including the complement fixation test (CFT) and Rose Bengal test (RBT). But these tests are time-consuming and limited with respect to sensitivity and standardisation. The RBT can only be used for monitoring in Brucella-free regions. The World Organisation for Animal Health OIE (“Office International des Epizooties”) names various serological tests for the diagnosis of bovine antibodies against Brucella, including the above-mentioned CFT and RBT, as well as ELISA. However, the organisation also points out that a positive result should always be verified using a confirmatory test. ELISAs based on a large antigen spectrum offer a high sensitivity and are therefore ideally suited for screening

13/09/2022

Clostridium perfringens produces enteric diseases, generically called enterotoxaemia, in sheep, goats, and other animals.The objective of this work is to conduct a preliminary study for diagnosis of Clostridium perfringens among camel-calf (Camelusdromedarius) . A total of 200 f***l samples were collected from camel calve with sings of diarrhea and 120 small intestine ( 70 from the central slaughter house and 50 after postmortem examination of suddenly dead camel calves ). All samples were evaluated by culture for C. perfringens. Cultivation of f***l samples on SFP agar revealed the isolation of 45 C. perfringens isolates from f***l samples and 16 isolates from intestinal contents collected after postmortem examination of dead animals and 14 isolates from intestinal contents of apparently healthy animals . All bacterial isolates exhibited the characteristic features of C. perfringens. Results of pathogenicity test in white mice revealed that out of 75 C. perfringens isolates ; 16 ( 21.33 % ) were non-pathogenic for mice . Isolates were analyzed by multiplex PCR in order to detect the presence of the toxin genes of C. perfringens. Of these isolates, 25 ( 33.33 %) were type A, 4 ( 5.3 %), were type A ß2, 4 ( 5.3 %), were type B, 13 ( 17.33 % ) were type C , 13 ( 17.33 %) were type D and 16 ( 21.33 % ) non- pathogenic. In conclusion, C. perfringens type A is the predominant type among camel calves in Al Hasa region , KSA . Its recommended that a vaccination schedule should be implemented to reduce the enterotoxaemia in camel calves.

13/09/2022

RVF is caused by an RNA virus of the family Bunyaviridae, genus Phlebovirus. Camels have been regularly involved in the RVF epidemics in East Africa and Egypt. However, clinical disease is not seen in adult camels, but abortion occurs and some early deaths have been observed (OIE 2008). Serological evidence of dromedary camel infection with RVF was documented. According to Davies et al. (1985), camel sera collected after an epizootic of Rift Valley fever in Kenya revealed positive sera with high titers of serum neutralizing antibody found in 22 % of camels at one of the seven sampling sites. Furthermore, the demonstration of specific IgG antibodies in camels (Nabeth et al. 2001) indicates that these animals are naturally infected. The disease emerged in Egypt in 1977, in Mauritania in 1998 (Nabeth et al. 2001), and in the Arabian Peninsula in 2000 (Abdo-Salem et al. 2006). In addition, the disease reappeared in Kenya in 2006/2007 (Bird et al. 2008). It also involved camels beside sheep, goats, and humans, again with abortion as the only clinical symptom.
Recently, El Mamy et al. (2014) have reported confirmatory evidence for a field camel infection with RVF. In September of 2010, an RVF outbreak occurred in northern Mauritania involving mass abortions in small ruminants and camels (Camelus dromedarius) and at least 63 human clinical cases, including 13 deaths. In camels, serological prevalence was 27.5–38.5 %, and for the first time, clinical signs other than abortions were reported in this species, including hemorrhagic septicemia and severe respiratory distress (Fig. 20.4). Phylogenetic analyses of the genome of isolates from camels suggested a shared ancestor between the Mauritania 2010 strain and strains from Zimbabwe, Kenya, South Africa, Uganda, and other strains linked to the 1987 outbreak of RVF in Mauritania.

13/09/2022

Specific recommendations for drug dosages for the camel are rare and doses for this species are usually extrapolated from those recommended for other species. The pharmacology and toxicity of drugs likely to be used in the camel needs to be further studied to ensure the efficacy and safety of these drugs in this species.
Most of the reported work is on the chemotherapeutic efficacy of a few drugs long in use in other species against trypanosomiasis, mange and gastrointestinal nematodes. Areas of study most deficient are pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics and drug metabolism. The anatomical, physiological and biochemical peculiarities of the camel warrant more pharmacological and toxicological studies in this species.
This article surveys the literature on the pharmacology, toxicity and therapeutic uses of some antiparasitic and antibacterial drugs and central nervous system depressants commonly used in the camel. It appears that camels are more susceptible to the toxic action of some trypanocidal drugs than other species. In certain cases they may metabolize some drugs differently. In general, the camel appears to be a good subject for analgesics and anaesthetics.

13/09/2022

Camel health management has implications for public health and camel product trade. After liberalization of the veterinary service, current camel health management in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALS) of Kenya and its implications for public health is not known. This study investigated camel health management and its implications on zoonoses and food safety in Isiolo County, Kenya. Semi-structured questionnaires were administered to 150 households, 15 agro-veterinary shops, 15 community-based animal health workers (CBAHWs) and 10 veterinary officers to collect information on camel health management. The main occupation and source of household income for the pastoral communities is camel-keeping (45.3%). Pastoralists self-medicate camels and other livestock (45.8%), which can lead to between over-dosing, under-dosing or wrong drug use. The CBAHWs, traditional animal health service providers (TAHSPs), government veterinary officers and private veterinary officers play a minimum role. Private veterinary services have not taken root in the ASALs. The sources of knowledge and information on the veterinary drug to use are experience (57.4%), non-governmental organizations (NGO) (41.1%) or CBAHWs (32.1%). The majority of pastoralists (72.5%) do not keep camel or other livestock treatment records. The constraints in purchasing veterinary drugs are expensive drugs, accessibility to drugs and availability of money. Pastoralists refer to veterinary drugs by their brand names but not by active ingredients. As reported by pastoralists, focus group discussion and key informant interviews, antibiotics used were adamycine (33.3%), ampicilline (26.7%), penicillin (14.4%), tetracycline (12.2%), amoxylin (11.1%) and penstrip (2.2%). The common camel diseases were trypanosomiasis, brucellosis, mastitis, diarrhoea, worm infestation, camel pox and tuberculosis. The public health risk factors were the presence of veterinary drug residues in camel products and development of resistant zoonotic organisms/diseases. It was concluded that current camel health management has serious implications for public health and food safety, and hence the camel product trade.

13/09/2022

Camels are highly susceptible to brucellosis caused by Brucella melitensis and Brucella abortus. Difficulties can arise in diagnosis of camel brucellosis, especially as this disease provokes only few clinical signs in contrast to its clinical course in cattle. Because none of the commonly used serological test can be perceived as a perfect test for Brucella diagnosis in camel and most serological tests used for camels have been directly transposed from cattle without adequate validation, an incorrect diagnosis may occur when diagnosis is based on serology alone. Of imminent concern is the fact that brucellosis can be easily transmitted from animals or their products to humans mainly via milk. In many developing countries in the arid areas of Asia and Africa, camels are still the most important productive livestock for nomadic populations. Therefore, we reviewed the literatures on camel brucellosis to highlight the epidemiologic, economic and public health impact of camel brucellosis as a basis for designing effective control strategies.

13/09/2022

With a global population of about 35 million in 47 countries, dromedary camels play a crucial role in the economy of many marginal, desert areas of the world where they survive under harsh conditions. Nonetheless, there is scarce knowledge regarding camelsʼ parasite fauna which can reduce their milk and meat productions. In addition, only scattered information is available about zoonotic parasites transmitted to humans via contamination (e.g. Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Balantidium coli, Blastocystis spp. and Enterocytozoon bieneusi), as foodborne infections (e.g. Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spp. and Linguatula serrata) or by arthropod vectors (Trypanosoma spp.). Herein, we draw attention of the scientific community and health policy-making organizations to the role camels play in the epidemiology of parasitic zoonotic diseases also in the view of an increase in their farming in desert areas worldwide.