Camel management

06/02/2023

28/07/2022

Camelpox is the only camel disease included in the OIE’s list of reportable diseases. A chapter on camelpox has been recently added to the OIE’s manual of terrestrial animal diseases, following its endorsement by OIE’s assembly during the general session of May 2014. A special research interest in camelpox has resulted in numerous publications on different aspects of the disease and the causative virus. This is mainly attributable to the resemblance of the CMLV to small poxvirus (Baxby 1974). Interestingly, the CMLV is recently becoming the subject for studies on antiviral therapies (Duraffour et al. 2014), cellular ion channel analysis, and apoptosis.
Camelpox is a highly contagious skin disease and the most frequent infectious viral disease of the camelids that occurs in almost every country in which camel husbandry is practiced (Fig.20.1). Outbreaks have been reported in Asia (Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Yemen, Syria, Afghanistan, southern parts of Russia and India, and Pakistan) and in Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Somalia, and Sudan). The disease is endemic in these countries, and a pattern of sporadic outbreaks occurs with a rise in the seasonal incidence usually during the rainy season (OIE 2008). The disease was recently reported from Saudi Arabia (Yousif 2011), India (Bhanuprakash et al. 2010; Bera et al. 2011), Ethiopia (Ayelet et al. 2013), and Iran (Mosadeghhesari et al. 2014).

28/07/2022

It is estimated that 65 % of fatalities in Old World camels (OWC, i.e., Camelus dromedarius and C. bactrianus) and 50 % in New World camelids/South American camelids (NWC/SAC, i.e., the domestic alpaca (Vicugna pacos) and llama (Lama glama)) are caused by infectious diseases (Wernery and Kaaden 2002). In the past, camels were used mainly for transportation beside their role as the main source of milk and meat for pastoralists. Dromedary camel in sub-Saharan Africa was traditionally known to be reared in the arid and semiarid lands. Due to aridity and desertification, they obliged to move to the higher rainfall areas side by side with other domestic livestock and wildlife. This change resulted in exposure of camels to diseases that were uncommon in their natural habitat such as dermatophilosis, tick paralysis, trypanosomosis, and brucellosis. The situation in Niger, Chad, and Sudan is an example where diseases like contagious ecthyma, trypanosomosis, and tick paralysis have become very serious with increased mortality rates due to the migration of camels south of their well-known camel belt. Drought in the Sahel and the Horn of Africa has also brought pastoralists closer to urban centers, and sales of camel milk became their main source of cash income. Due to an increased demand of urban populations of many countries, particularly in North Africa and the Middle East for camel milk, many dairy farms are established in intensive and semi-intensive systems. This development may be responsible for making camels more susceptible to certain disease. Brucellosis, enterotoxemia, and Johne’s disease are examples of these diseases. A similar situation could be envisaged for an increased incidence of enterotoxemia in camels when raised in an intensive husbandry system as in the UAE (Wernery and Kaaden 2002) or Syria (Khalafalla AI 2015, personnel communication). Changes in animal husbandry related to increasing camel contacts with other animal species, such as equids, may cause disease emergence. Examples of newly emerged diseases of camels resulting from sharing premises with equines are glanders (Wernery et al. 2011), melioidosis (Wernery et al. 1997), and Rhodococcus equi infection (Kinne et al. 2011). Another factor that may contribute to the emergence of camel diseases is the migration into new habitat that never was reached before by camels (Faye and Vias 2010).

28/07/2022

Growing interest in camelids presents a unique challenge to scientists and veterinarians engaged in diagnosing infectious diseases of this species. It is estimated that 65 % of fatalities in Old World camels (OWC, i.e., Camelus dromedarius and C. bactrianus) and 50 % in New World camelids/South American camelids (NWC/SAC, i.e., the domestic alpaca (Vicugna pacos) and llama (Lama glama)) are caused by infectious diseases. Factors that contribute to disease emergence in camelids involve climate change and increased demand for camel products resulting in the intensification of production and expanding camel contacts with other animal species and humans. In this chapter, the most important emerging diseases of camelids are described and discussed. The most notable emerging viral infections in OWC include camelpox, Rift Valley fever (RVF), peste des petits ruminants (PPR), and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection. Brucellosis, Johne’s disease (JD), and dermatophilosis are the emerging bacterial diseases in OWC. Emerging diseases of NWC include infections with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), bluetongue (BT), and coronavirus. Parasitic emerging infections in NWCs include the small liver fluke (Dicrocoelium dendriticum) and meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis).

28/07/2022

A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 150 camel-keeping households, 15 agro-veterinary outlets/shops, 15 community-based animal health workers and 10 veterinary officers were conveniently selected along the Mlango-Ngarendare-Burat, Kambi Garba-Ngaremara -Chumvi-Gambela and Boji-Kulamawe-Baranbate camel milk clusters in Isiolo County. The households were conveniently selected from each of the above clusters based on the Kenya population census clustering system (KNBS 2010), accessibility and the willingness of pastoralists to take part in the study.
One set of semi-structured questionnaires were administered to 150 camel-keeping households to obtain information on camel health management practices and knowledge/information of pastoralists on the right veterinary practices in camel health management, zoonotic organisms/diseases and food safety risks. The practices determined were who treats camel/livestock, sources of veterinary drugs for treating the camel/livestock, source of knowledge and information on veterinary drug use, type of records kept when treating camel/livestock and constraints in purchasing of veterinary drugs as dependent variables. These practices if not professionally done will result in drug residues in camel milk and meat and development of drug resistant zoonotic organisms with serious implications for food safety.
Knowledge and information of pastoralists on camel husbandry practices associated with spread of zoonotic organisms/diseases was determined. Also, knowledge of pastoralists on potential food safety risk along the camel milk value chain, milk withdrawal period after treatment of camels, presence of drug residues and drug resistance was determined.
Another set of different semi-structured questionnaires were administered specifically to 15 agro-veterinary outlets/shops, 15 community-based animal health workers and 10 veterinary officers to elicit their knowledge/information on provision of veterinary services, types of diseases commonly affecting camels, types of veterinary drugs commonly used, dosage used in treatment of camels and practices that predispose camel and pastoralists to zoonotic diseases, as dependent variables.
Focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted to complement the information gathered through the semi-structured questionnaires. The FGDs and KIIs comments were also used to clarify and give more insights on aspects of camel health management practices, zoonoses and food safety risk factors.

28/07/2022

The Kenyan livestock sector contributes about 10% of the gross domestic product (GDP), with the cattle dairy sub-sector contributing 3.8% of total GDP. However, the contribution of the camel dairy sub-sector is not quantified (GOK 2010).
In Kenya, the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) population is estimated to be over three million heads (KNBS 2010; FAOSTAT 2015), the third largest population in Africa after Somalia and Sudan. The camels are mainly kept as mobile grazing herds under pastoral production systems in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) counties of Kenya. The ASALs are characterized by high levels of poverty, poor infrastructure, extreme weather and a fragile environment. Camels require low production inputs as they have unique adaptability to these harsh environmental conditions. Camels produce more milk and for a longer period than other livestock under these harsh ASAL conditions (Farah and Fisher 2004). However, this comparative advantage of camels as a milk producer over other livestock has not been adequately exploited in the improvement of the ASAL community livelihoods.
One of the major constraints is poor camel health management, which does not give consumers assurance on absence or presence of zoonotic organisms/diseases and other food safety issues. Good camel health management practices are an important factor for increased milk productivity and in promoting domestic and export milk trade (Kuria et al. 2002).
However, the privatization of veterinary services in Kenya in the 1990s (Umali et al. 1992) resulted in inadequate professional veterinary service delivery in the ASALs, as most private veterinary service providers found it not economically viable to operate in these vast areas with poor infrastructure. This had a negative impact on camel/livestock health and productivity as it hampered the provision of veterinary services and dissemination of knowledge and information on good camel health management practices to pastoralists. The result effect was mushrooming of unskilled veterinary service providers (community-based animal health workers (CBAHWs)) and self-medication of livestock, including camels. The absence of professional veterinary services results in uncontrolled and unauthorized sale of veterinary drugs by agro-veterinary shops, self-medication, use of wrong veterinary drugs, injection needles and route, and overdosing of chemotherapeutic veterinary drugs (Kuria et al. 2002) leading to food safety concerns like drug residues and development of drug resistance among zoonotic organisms/diseases in milk and meat. Therefore, the liberalization of veterinary services in the camel sub-sector resulted in development of diseases that lowered productivity. The urban and export markets also developed negative attitudes towards camel milk and meat due to the likely presence of zoonotic organisms/diseases and food safety concerns, hence limiting the markets for camel products only to traditional consumers.
The frequent contact between livestock (camels) and humans and communal watering of livestock also facilitates spread of zoonotic organisms/diseases with a potentially high risk to public health among livestock and humans (Younan and Abdurahman 2004; Oliver et al. 2009; Kazoora et al. 2014).
Despite growing importance of the camel dairy sub-sector in Kenya, the effects of the post-privatization of veterinary services, current pastoralists’ knowledge and information on camel health management is still limited. Most of the research conducted has documented camel husbandry practices like feeding, breeding and watering, with very little attention given to camel health management and the implication on presence or absence of zoonotic organisms/diseases and milk safety (Wanjohi et al. 2012; Wanjohi et al. 2013; Gitao et al 2013).
The present study was carried out to assess current camel health management and the impact of pastoralists’ knowledge/information on zoonoses and food safety risks along the camel value chain in Isiolo County, Kenya, which is a major camel milk producing and marketing area in Kenya.

28/07/2022

Camel health management has implications for public health and camel product trade. After liberalization of the veterinary service, current camel health management in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALS) of Kenya and its implications for public health is not known. This study investigated camel health management and its implications on zoonoses and food safety in Isiolo County, Kenya. Semi-structured questionnaires were administered to 150 households, 15 agro-veterinary shops, 15 community-based animal health workers (CBAHWs) and 10 veterinary officers to collect information on camel health management. The main occupation and source of household income for the pastoral communities is camel-keeping (45.3%). Pastoralists self-medicate camels and other livestock (45.8%), which can lead to between over-dosing, under-dosing or wrong drug use. The CBAHWs, traditional animal health service providers (TAHSPs), government veterinary officers and private veterinary officers play a minimum role. Private veterinary services have not taken root in the ASALs. The sources of knowledge and information on the veterinary drug to use are experience (57.4%), non-governmental organizations (NGO) (41.1%) or CBAHWs (32.1%). The majority of pastoralists (72.5%) do not keep camel or other livestock treatment records. The constraints in purchasing veterinary drugs are expensive drugs, accessibility to drugs and availability of money. Pastoralists refer to veterinary drugs by their brand names but not by active ingredients. As reported by pastoralists, focus group discussion and key informant interviews, antibiotics used were adamycine (33.3%), ampicilline (26.7%), penicillin (14.4%), tetracycline (12.2%), amoxylin (11.1%) and penstrip (2.2%). The common camel diseases were trypanosomiasis, brucellosis, mastitis, diarrhoea, worm infestation, camel pox and tuberculosis. The public health risk factors were the presence of veterinary drug residues in camel products and development of resistant zoonotic organisms/diseases. It was concluded that current camel health management has serious implications for public health and food safety, and hence the camel product trade.

06/11/2021

camel milk

08/10/2021

Diseases commonly affecting camels in the study area
The common diseases that infect camels in the study area were listed by pastoralists as trypanosomiasis (39%), brucellosis (14%), mastitis (10%), diarrhoea (10%), worm infestation (9%), camel pox (4%) and tuberculosis (3%). Most of the respondents were not aware of incidences of bovine tuberculosis in camels. There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference and negative correlation between level of education and pastoralists knowing diseases that affect camels in the study area (r = −0.312) or knowing whether brucella, tuberculosis (TB) and mastitis affect camels in the study area (r = −0.352).

Types of drug used
There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference and negative correlation between level of education and the pastoralists knowing types of drugs used to treat camels (r = −0.447) and whether antibiotics (r = −0.254) are used to treat camels. Ninety percent (90%) of pastoralists reported to have used veterinary drugs during treatment of their camels or other livestock. However, the respondents could only refer to the veterinary drugs by their brand names. The active ingredients on the brand were determined by cross-checking on packages at agrovet shops and consultation with veterinary professionals at the Department of Clinical Studies, University of Nairobi. Apart from triquin (11.9%), which is used in treatment of trypanosomiasis, the penstrip (2.2%), tetracycline (12.2%), ampicilline (26.7%), adamycine (33.3%), penicillin (14.4%) and amoxylin (11.1%) were common antibiotics used in treatment of camels or other livestock (Figure 7). This information was complemented by agro-veterinary shop attendants who also reported selling the same veterinary drugs in nearly the same proportion

08/10/2021

Type of records kept when treating camels and other livestock
Most of the pastoralists (72.5%) do not keep records on treatment of camels and other livestock. There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference and negative correlation (r = −1.000) between level of education and types of record kept when treating camel. Of the 25.5% who kept records, 17.4, 47.8 and 25% kept records on type of diseases, type of veterinary drugs used and when the camel got sick, respectively

08/10/2021

There was very little involvement of either the national or the County government in provision of information on the right veterinary drug to use (7.1%) to pastoralists (Figure 4). The veterinary drug stores/agro-veterinary shops are mostly staffed by personnel with nil or minimum knowledge on clinical veterinary services.

Sources of drugs for treating camels and other livestock
Eighty percent (80%) of pastoralists reported that they purchase veterinary drugs from agro-veterinary shops, while else received from NGO/donor projects (11.4%) or other sources (8.6%) such as friends/neighbours with previous leftover stock. There was significant (p = 0.05) difference and negative correlation between level of education and accessibility to veterinary drug store (r = −0.263) or in constraints of getting veterinary drugs (r = −0.347). Despite the long distances to the nearest drug store, the high cost of veterinary drugs (49%) was the main constraint faced by pastoralists when purchasing veterinary drugs, compared to accessibility to veterinary drugs (32.4%) or availability of money to purchase the veterinary drugs (18%)

08/10/2021

Knowledge and information on the right veterinary drugs to use
Most of the pastoralists (57.4%) acquired knowledge/information on veterinary drug use through experience and previous conduct with past professional government veterinary officers (Figure 3). There was highly significant (p < 0.001) difference and negative correlation (r = −0.309) between age and sources of knowledge and information on treating camels. Only 18.5% of pastoralists had some knowledge/information on the right veterinary drug to use, which they acquired through informal training (Figure 3) provided by either non-governmental organization (NGO) (41.1%) or CBAHWs (32.1%) (Figure 4). There was significant (p =

08/10/2021

Treatment of camels and other livestock
The treatment of camels and other livestock is mostly done by pastoralists themselves, (45.8%) (self-medication), and also by CBAHWs (16.7%) or traditional animal health service providers (TAHSP) (15.3%) but very few remaining government veterinary officers (12.5%) (Figure 2). Provision of veterinary clinical services from private professional veterinary officers is minimal (9.7%), indicating that private veterinary practice has not taken root in the ASALs.

08/10/2021

The Kenyan livestock sector contributes about 10% of the gross domestic product (GDP), with the cattle dairy sub-sector contributing 3.8% of total GDP. However, the contribution of the camel dairy sub-sector is not quantified (GOK 2010).

In Kenya, the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) population is estimated to be over three million heads (KNBS 2010; FAOSTAT 2015), the third largest population in Africa after Somalia and Sudan. The camels are mainly kept as mobile grazing herds under pastoral production systems in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) counties of Kenya. The ASALs are characterized by high levels of poverty, poor infrastructure, extreme weather and a fragile environment. Camels require low production inputs as they have unique adaptability to these harsh environmental conditions. Camels produce more milk and for a longer period than other livestock under these harsh ASAL conditions (Farah and Fisher 2004). However, this comparative advantage of camels as a milk producer over other livestock has not been adequately exploited in the improvement of the ASAL community livelihoods.

One of the major constraints is poor camel health management, which does not give consumers assurance on absence or presence of zoonotic organisms/diseases and other food safety issues. Good camel health management practices are an important factor for increased milk productivity and in promoting domestic and export milk trade (Kuria et al. 2002).

However, the privatization of veterinary services in Kenya in the 1990s (Umali et al. 1992) resulted in inadequate professional veterinary service delivery in the ASALs, as most private veterinary service providers found it not economically viable to operate in these vast areas with poor infrastructure. This had a negative impact on camel/livestock health and productivity as it hampered the provision of veterinary services and dissemination of knowledge and information on good camel health management practices to pastoralists. The result effect was mushrooming of unskilled veterinary service providers (community-based animal health workers (CBAHWs)) and self-medication of livestock, including camels. The absence of professional veterinary services results in uncontrolled and unauthorized sale of veterinary drugs by agro-veterinary shops, self-medication, use of wrong veterinary drugs, injection needles and route, and overdosing of chemotherapeutic veterinary drugs (Kuria et al. 2002) leading to food safety concerns like drug residues and development of drug resistance among zoonotic organisms/diseases in milk and meat. Therefore, the liberalization of veterinary services in the camel sub-sector resulted in development of diseases that lowered productivity. The urban and export markets also developed negative attitudes towards camel milk and meat due to the likely presence of zoonotic organisms/diseases and food safety concerns, hence limiting the markets for camel products only to traditional consumers.

The frequent contact between livestock (camels) and humans and communal watering of livestock also facilitates spread of zoonotic organisms/diseases with a potentially high risk to public health among livestock and humans (Younan and Abdurahman 2004; Oliver et al. 2009; Kazoora et al. 2014).

Despite growing importance of the camel dairy sub-sector in Kenya, the effects of the post-privatization of veterinary services, current pastoralists’ knowledge and information on camel health management is still limited. Most of the research conducted has documented camel husbandry practices like feeding, breeding and watering, with very little attention given to camel health management and the implication on presence or absence of zoonotic organisms/diseases and milk safety (Wanjohi et al. 2012; Wanjohi et al. 2013; Gitao et al 2013).

The present study was carried out to assess current camel health management and the impact of pastoralists’ knowledge/information on zoonoses and food safety risks along the camel value chain in Isiolo County, Kenya, which is a major camel milk producing and marketing area in Kenya.

08/10/2021

The study was conducted in Yabello district of Borana Zone, southern Ethiopia. The study area is classified as arid and semi-arid rangelands, with pockets of sub-humid zones (Coppock 1994). The rainfall is bimodal with a mean annual rainfall of 500 mm with considerable inter-annual variability (Angassa and Oba 2007). Most annual rainfall (60%) occurs during the main rainy season (March to May), with 30% occurring in the short rainy season (September to November) (Coppock 1994), while 10% with occasional rains. The longest dry period, from December to February, is known locally as “Bona” season and the cold dry period, June to August, is called “Adolessa” season. The mean annual temperature is 24 °C with a minimum and maximum temperature of 17 and 28 °C, respectively (Coppock 1994). The rangelands are dominated by savanna vegetation, with varying proportion of open grasslands consisting of perennial herbaceous and woody vegetation (Angassa and Oba 2008). The Borana pastoralists are dependent on pastoralism and agro-pastoralism, where livestock production remains the main sources of food, income, and social prestige (Legesse 1973).

Traditionally, the Borana pastoral system of southern Ethiopia is based on cattle husbandry for survival and income generation. This traditional system of cattle production had been effective over generations in producing animal products with a robust management and maintenance of rangeland resources (Oba 1998). In recent years, due to the impact of climate change, the Borana pastoralists have started to gradually diversify livestock and vary the composition of their herds to match the local environmental conditions (Megersa et al. 2014; Oba 2014). Herders moved livestock between the wara and fora herd-management systems depending upon the condition of the grazing lands and family milk needs. Large numbers of animals were sent to the fora herd during the dry season when forage resources become scarce in the grazing lands of the wara herd. Recent increases in human and livestock populations and decreases in the availability of grazing resources coupled with recurrent drought might force pastoralists to manage camel as an adaptation strategy to climate change. In the last few decades, the development of water ponds has also attracted settlements and huge livestock concentration in specific areas for year round grazing. The proliferation of bush encroachment with a decline in forage production is also another problem in terms of affecting cattle population. Major areas of the communal rangelands have already been converted to croplands with even larger areas allocated to ranching (Angassa and Oba 2008). This has greatly restricted the area available for communal grazing and adversely affected dependence of households on cattle husbandry. Overall, the livelihoods of the pastoral communities are subjected to the impact of climate-induced recurrent droughts (Tache and Oba 2010).

Site selection and sampling procedure
To select the study sites, firstly, we targeted areas with the highest camel population (camel corridor). We then considered areas associated with high vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. Based on these characteristics, Yabello district was selected as a study area. The same criteria were considered to select the study kebeles.Footnote1 Dharito, Elwaye, and Surupha kebeles of Yabello district were selected to conduct the study.

We employed both purposive and stratified random sampling techniques for household sampling. Sampling went through two important steps. Firstly, the camel-holding households were purposively identified as a target population, where 625 households (HH) were listed from the three kebeles. From this target population, 156 households were sampled and distributed to each kebele proportional to its respective target population. Accordingly, 49 HHs from Dharito, 45 HHs from Elwaye, and 62 HHs from Surupha kebeles were selected. This study was mainly focused on Borana community in Dharito and Elwaye kebeles than the Gabra community in Surupha. The reason for this procedure was because the Gabra community members were originally camel herders while the Borana communities were recently engaged in camel management as an adaptive strategy to the impact of recurrent droughts. Each household was interviewed when and why they first adopted camels in response to the impact of droughts and climate change.

Data collection
Both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods as well as primary and secondary sources on participatory approaches, using a combination of different tools, were used. Primary data were gathered from 156 sample households by employing a household survey (HS), focus group discussions (FGD), key informant interviews (KII), and physical observations of the study areas. Secondary data were gathered from relevant sources such as government agencies, non-governmental organizations, private offices, Internet webs, and literature reviews. Observations on temperature and rainfall trends were obtained from the meteorological record data for the last 27 years. Furthermore, perceptions of pastoralists on trends of temperature and rainfall were collected over the last four Gada periods (Legesse 1973), while information related to camel adoption and population was collected over the last five Gada periods. Gada refers to the Oromo traditional governance institution whereby the power from one Gada leader to another Gada leader peacefully transfers every 8 years (i.e., one Gada period lasts for 8 years). Four Gada periods mean the period led by four consecutive Gada leaders (i.e., 32 years). These four Gada periods included the Gada of Boru Guyo from 1984 to 1992, the Gada of Boru Madha from 1992 to 2000, the Gada of Liban Jaldesa from 2000 to 2008, and the Gada of Guyo Goba from 2008 to 2016. The Gada of Jilo Aga from 1976 to 1984 was considered for data collection on camel adoption and trend of camel population. For climate-related parameters, we selected and considered only the last four Gada periods for two reasons: (1) according to our informants, the severity of drought increased during the last three decades, and (2) we assumed that our informants can easily recall the last four Gada periods regarding climate change based on the recent drought events and also from their day-to-day life experiences. Perceptions of the communities on trends of temperature, rainfall, and local indicators of climate change were recorded in terms of increase, decrease, or no change. First, we assessed evidence of knowledge of the indigenous communities on climate change by looking at temperature and rainfall trends between 1984 and 2013. Then, perceptions of respondents and meteorological data records between 1986 and 2012 were compared to validate the conditions and trends of changing climate. To compare the 27 years of meteorological records with the perception of pastoralists, the records on metrological data were classified into four Gada periods so as to overlap metrological records with the same years in each Gada period to see how they fit with the perceived information. Thus, the results from both meteorological records and perceptions of pastoralists were discussed within each Gada period. Accordingly, trends of the two sets of data were, then, compared to explain the occurrence of climate change in the study areas.

Data analyses
Quantitative data were analyzed by employing descriptive statistics such as mean values and frequency distributions (in percentages), chi-squared test using the “Statistical Package for Social Science” (SPSS) Software Version 16.0. Statistical significance was determined at α = 0.05.

Results
Perceptions of pastoralists on the trend of climate pastoralists perceived that temperature was increasing over the last four Gada periods, while the rainfall pattern showed a general decline. Most respondents (83%) perceived that temperature was increased considerably during the Gada period of Boru Madha. Similarly, about 57% of the respondents confirmed that high temperature occurred during the Gada period of Boru Guyo. Most of the respondents also believed that extremely high temperature occurred during the Gada periods of Liban Jaldessa (92%) and Guyo Goba (95%) (Table 1). On the contrary, 34.6% of the respondents reported that they did not remember anything about the trend of temperature during the Gada period of Guyo Boru (Table 1). However, the proportion of respondents who did not know about the trend of temperature dropped from 34.6% during the Gada period of Boru Guyo to 1.9% at the time of Gada Guyo Goba