Foot and mouth disease in cattle

03/02/2023

31/08/2022

Vaccination of susceptible animals against foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a well established strategy for helping to combat the disease. Traditionally, FMD vaccine has been used to control a disease incursion in countries where the disease has been endemic rather than in countries considered free of the disease. In 2001, the use of vaccine was considered but not implemented in the United Kingdom (1), whereas vaccine was used to help to control FMD in The Netherlands (2,3). Canadian contingency plans provide for the use of vaccine; Canada is a member of the North American Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Bank, which could supply vaccine if needed. This article explains why Canada might use FMD vaccine to combat an outbreak and the factors that are relevant to the disposal of vaccinated animals and their products. It concludes that vaccination is an important mechanism in Canada's preparedness for an outbreak of FMD and that products from vaccinated animals are safe for human consumption.

31/08/2022

Foot-and-mouth disease: the gaps in South Africa’s efforts to keep it under control
In mid August, South Africa’s minister of agriculture, land reform and rural development Thoko Didiza responded to outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease with a nationwide ban on the movement of cattle for 21 days. By late August, 127 cases of the disease had been recorded in six of the country’s nine provinces. The Conversation Africa spoke with Rebone Moerane and Melvyn Quan about the disease, its effects and the government’s mitigation strategies.
What is foot-and-mouth disease?
It’s a viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats and pigs, and wild animals such as buffalo. The disease is caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus. The virus is extremely contagious; it can travel on air currents and infect animals many kilometres away from the source. Animals can also be infected by close or direct contact with other infected animals, or contaminated people, vehicles and equipment.
As the name suggests, the disease can be recognised by blisters and ulcers on areas where there is friction, such as the mouth, feet and teats. Not many animals die from the disease. But there are production losses related to reduced milk yield, growth of affected animals and poor quality wool.
The main economic impact of the disease comes from trade bans and the inability to move or sell animals and animal products from affected areas.
South Africa has different zones where different levels of foot-and-mouth disease control are applied. In the north and the east, the Kruger National Park and northern KwaZulu-Natal province are considered the infected zone. This is surrounded by a protection zone, in which cloven-hooved and related wild animals are vaccinated against the virus. This provides a barrier to the disease spreading to the rest of the country. There’s also a zone which is under close surveillance. The rest of South Africa is normally considered free of the disease.
The recent outbreaks have occurred in the foot-and-mouth disease free zone. As a result, South Africa cannot export animals and fresh meat to other countries. According to official statistics, South Africa “produces approximately 21.4% of the total meat produced on the (African) continent and 1% of global meat production”. The livestock industry also contributes 34.1% to the total domestic agricultural production and provides 36% of the population’s protein needs. This shows how economically damaging the current situation is.
Are there any risks to human health?
Humans cannot be infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus, so meat from an infected animal is safe for human consumption. However, the infected meat can act as a source of infection to other cloven-hoofed animals if it is not deboned and canned, salted or heated to inactivate the virus.
This virus should not be confused with hand, foot and mouth disease; its only relation is that it belongs to the same family of viruses.
What is the current situation in South Africa?
There are three outbreaks. The first started in May 2021 in KwaZulu-Natal, the second in March 2022 in Limpopo and the third, also in March 2022, began in the North West province and spread to the Free State, Gauteng and Mpumulanga provinces. There are currently 127 open cases – that’s a lot.
This resulted in the minister’s announcement of a 21-day movement ban. Animals on affected properties are being quarantined and in some cases culled. There’s a vaccination drive in the affected areas. All vaccinated animals should be branded with an “F” mark to show they’ve been inoculated against the virus. Surveillance has also increased: cattle are being examined for clinical signs of the disease; blood is being drawn to test cattle for antibodies that would indicate a previous infection.
Is there anything else the government should be doing?
The government has tried to implement measures in line with the gazetted policy to control the disease. But there are several challenges with this approach.
The first is that the control of any animal disease is not solely the government’s responsibility. Other stakeholders – like farm owners and managers – are obliged by legislation to prevent the spread of disease.
Unfortunately most farmers, especially small-scale rural farmers, might not be aware of such responsibility. They may not have the means or have been equipped with the necessary tools to identify sick animals early and report to a state veterinary official or a private veterinarian. Those small-scale rural farmers in the infected zone need more support during outbreaks and during normal times. For instance, there’s no reason why the government could not invest in assisting farmers in this zone by providing processing plants for the proper slaughtering and processing of meat in line with international standards.
Read more: Tanzanian farmers don't vaccinate against foot and mouth disease. Here's why
Another problem is that the current measures are unfortunately short term and don’t take all the issues at play into consideration. The veterinary authority, which is part of the department of agriculture, land reform and rural development, needs extra funding, through a special allocation from the national treasury, to tackle these outbreaks and continue its normal work. This requires political support from cabinet and parliament.

10/08/2022

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals including cattle, pigs, sheep and many wildlife species. It can cause enormous economic losses when incursions occur into countries which are normally disease free. In addition, it has long-term effects within countries where the disease is endemic due to reduced animal productivity and the restrictions on international trade in animal products. The disease is caused by infection with foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), a picornavirus. Seven different serotypes (and numerous variants) of FMDV have been identified. Some serotypes have a restricted geographical distribution, e.g. Asia-1, whereas others, notably serotype O, occur in many different regions. There is no cross-protection between serotypes and sometimes protection conferred by vaccines even of the same serotype can be limited. Thus it is important to characterize the viruses that are circulating if vaccination is being used for disease control. This review describes current methods for the detection and characterization of FMDVs. Sequence information is increasingly being used for identifying the source of outbreaks. In addition such information can be used to understand antigenic change within virus strains. The challenges and opportunities for improving the control of the disease within endemic settings, with a focus on Eurasia, are discussed, including the role of the FAO/EuFMD/OIE Progressive Control Pathway. Better control of the disease in endemic areas reduces the risk of incursions into disease-free regions.

10/08/2022

How is the virus spread?
FMD is a highly contagious animal disease that spreads rapidly between susceptible animals.
Virus is excreted in the breath, saliva, mucus, milk and faeces of infected animals. Animals can transmit the disease for up to four days before signs of the disease appear. Animals can become infected through inhalation, ingestion and direct contact.
The disease spreads most commonly through the movement of infected animals. In sheep the symptoms can be absent or very mild, and undetected infected sheep can be an important source of infection.
The virus is also extremely transmissible on materials. It can be moved from one area to another on vehicles, goods (including clothing and footwear).

10/08/2022

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease of livestock causing fever followed by the development of vesicles (blisters) chiefly in the mouth and on the feet.
FMD is generally not lethal to adult animals, but it can kill young animals and cause serious production losses.
It affects cloven-hoofed animals (those with divided hoofs) including:
cattle
buffalo
camels
sheep
goats
deer
pigs.
FMD is not considered a risk to public health as infection from animals to humans is extremely rare. FMD should not be confused with the human disease (hand, foot and mouth disease), caused by a different virus which commonly affects young children.
It is not present in Australia but is endemic throughout the Middle East, Africa, Asia and most of South America.
The most significant risk of entry of FMD into Australia is through illegal entry of meat and dairy products infected with the FMD virus and subsequent illegal feeding of these products (swill) to pigs.
Most countries would ban our livestock and livestock products as soon as foot-and-mouth disease is found. It is unlikely these restrictions would be lifted until Australia could prove that the disease had been eradicated.
The economic effects of an outbreak of FMD, would be enormous to individuals, the farming industry, and subsidiary and support industries.
Australia’s major livestock industries would be directly affected from export market closures and the disruption to production associated with the disease and response activities.
There would be significant flow-on economic losses and social impacts to many rural and regional businesses that rely on livestock industry revenue.

06/07/2022

06/07/2022

Vaccination of susceptible animals against foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a well established strategy for helping to combat the disease. Traditionally, FMD vaccine has been used to control a disease incursion in countries where the disease has been endemic rather than in countries considered free of the disease. In 2001, the use of vaccine was considered but not implemented in the United Kingdom (1), whereas vaccine was used to help to control FMD in The Netherlands (2,3). Canadian contingency plans provide for the use of vaccine; Canada is a member of the North American Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine Bank, which could supply vaccine if needed. This article explains why Canada might use FMD vaccine to combat an outbreak and the factors that are relevant to the disposal of vaccinated animals and their products. It concludes that vaccination is an important mechanism in Canada's preparedness for an outbreak of FMD and that products from vaccinated animals are safe for human consumption.

05/07/2022

Recent outbreaks of foot-and-mouth (FMD) and lumpy skin disease (L*D) in Indonesia have put the Australian cattle industry on edge as it poses a threat to supply, especially if a national livestock standstill is imposed.

The National Management Group (NMG) — the decision-making body for animal disease eradication programmes — has so far increased biosecurity management across the Australian agriculture industry and border control to limit the spread of the highly contagious diseases. FMD and L*D are generally not fatal to adult animals, but the diseases can kill young animals and cause serious production losses.

A national livestock standstill will be imposed should either disease enter Australia, leading to total movement controls on all species susceptible to FMD and L*D, according to NMG. The initial standstill would affect every region in Australia regardless of where the outbreak occurs and be in place for at least 72 hours.

The impact and epidemiology of the outbreak will be assessed and further control guidelines will be implemented if necessary. It is likely that the government will impose regional segregation post infection in Australia, similar to the Queensland cattle tick line, which creates zones defined by the presence or absence of a pest or disease. This could slow cattle movement across zones, as livestock would have to be inspected and receive a biosecurity certificate to enable transport across tick lines or state borders.

Farmers are wary of having excess cattle on hand in case there is a disease outbreak, while others are more concerned about cattle that would usually go to Indonesia being redirected to the domestic market. Feeder steer prices eased to a midpoint delivered price of 517A¢/kg on 30 June compared with 525A¢/kg on 23 June and 528A¢/kg in early June, Argus data show, as more cattle became available.

Outbreak impact
An outbreak of FMD or L*D could cripple the overall local livestock market, with Australian producers now hesitant to bring in new livestock. It would be particularly hard for the feedlotting sector as both diseases spread most in intensive livestock environments.

An outbreak could also drive up costs for Australian livestock farmers, with the UK livestock industry recording losses of around A$19bn during its 11-month outbreak of FMD in 2001, according to the UK's National Audit Office report.

L*D spreads via biting insects such as flies and mosquitoes and FMD is transmitted in air particles between animals housed closely together.

There is currently no vaccine approved for L*D in Australia. Many countries in an endemic situation use a vaccine to aid in controlling the spread of FMD, although this has trade implications. A country must declare that there has been no case of FMD in the past two years and no evidence of FMD virus transmission in the past 12 months to qualify for FMD-free status under current World Organization for Animal Health standards.

03/01/2022

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a severe, highly contagious viral disease of cattle and swine. It also affects sheep, goats, deer, and other cloven-hooved ruminants. FMD is not recognised as a zoonotic disease.

The disease spreads very quickly if not controlled and because of this is a reportable disease.

Cause
The disease is caused by a virus of which there are seven ‘types’, each producing the same symptoms, and distinguishable only in the laboratory.

Immunity to one type does not protect an animal against other types.

The interval between exposure to infection and the appearance of symptoms varies between twenty-four hours and ten days, or even longer. The average time, under natural conditions, is three to six days.

The virus survives in lymph nodes and bone marrow at neutral pH, but is destroyed in muscle when pH is less than 6.0, i.e., after rigor mortis. The virus can persist in contaminated fodder and the environment for up to one month, depending on the temperature and pH conditions.

Airborne spread of the disease can take place and under favourable weather conditions the disease may be spread considerable distances by this route.

Animals pick up the virus either by direct contact with an infected animal or by contact with foodstuffs or other things which have been contaminated by such an animal, or by eating or coming into contact with some part of an infected carcase.

Outbreaks have been linked with the importation of infected meat and meat products.

The disease can also be spread by people, vehicles and other objects that have been contaminated by the virus.

Symptoms
Fever
Bilsters in the mouth and on feet
Drop in milk production
Weight loss
Loss of appetite
Quivering lips and frothing of mouth
Cows may develop blisters on teats
Lameness
Treatment
Treatment is not given. Affected animals will recover. However because of the loss of production and the infectious state of the disease, infected animals are usually culled.

Prevention
FMD is one of the most difficult animal infections to control. Because the disease occurs in many parts of the world, there is always a chance of its accidental introduction into an unaffected country.

Export restrictions are often imposed on countries with known outbreaks.

FMD outbreaks are usually controlled by quarantines and movement restrictions, euthanasia of affected and in-contact animals, and cleansing and disinfection of affected premises, equipment and vehicles.

Infected carcasses must be disposed of safely by incineration, rendering, burial or other techniques. Milk from infected cows can be inactivated by heating to 100°C (212°F) for more than 20 minutes. Slurry can be heated to 67°C (153°F) for three minutes.

Rodents and other vectors may be killed to prevent them from mechanically disseminating the virus.

Good biosecurity measures should be practiced on uninfected farms to prevent entry of the virus.

Vaccination
Vaccination can be used to reduce the spread of FMD or protect specific animals.

Vaccines are also used in endemic regions to protect animals from clinical disease. FMDV vaccines must closely match the serotype and strain of the infecting strain.

Vaccination with one serotype does not protect the animal against other serotypes, and may not protect the animal completely or at all from other strains of the same serotype. Currently, there is no universal FMD vaccine.

22/05/2021

An animation explaining how the foot-and-mouth disease virus infects its host animals and how The Pirbright Institute is researching ways to prevent and control the disease. Includes interviews from foot-and-mouth disease virus experts at the Institute.

22/02/2021

Yes. Australia’s large domestic animal industries have not been exposed to this disease and are fully susceptible. Despite the implementation of regional control programs, FMD continues to cause problems in many parts of the world, including South East Asia. FMD is found as close to Australia as Malaysia. Australia has successfully kept FMD out of the country for more than 130 years, but FMD has shown its ability to establish and spread in a wide range of environmental and production systems around the world. Vigilance and preparedness are essential safeguards.

What would be the consequences of an FMD outbreak in Australia?
FMD would have very serious effects on Australia’s livestock industries since so many species found here are susceptible.

An ABARES update (in 2011) of the Productivity Commission report of 2001 estimated that over a ten year period there would be severe direct economic losses to the livestock and meat processing sector from an outbreak of FMD. These losses ranged from $7.1 billion for a small three month outbreak, to $16.0 billion for a large 12 month outbreak (expressed in current dollar terms).

However, well-developed exotic disease outbreak procedures are in place that involve all levels of government and the livestock industries. Those procedures are regularly tested, updated and improved.

How could FMD virus enter Australia?
Australia doesn’t allow imports of any susceptible live animals, semen or uncooked meat or unprocessed dairy products from FMD-affected countries or zones. FMD virus is most likely to be introduced in contaminated, illegally imported animal products.

22/02/2021

Human infections have been reported but they are very rare and do not result in serious disease. Humans can carry the virus in their nose for up to 24 hours and can be a source of infection for animals.

Is the human hand, foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD) the same thing as FMD in livestock?
No. The two diseases are quite different and are caused by different organisms. Viruses from the group called enteroviruses cause HFMD. FMD in livestock is not a threat to human health.

HFMD affects the inside of the mouth, the palm of the hands, fingers and soles of the feet, mostly in children. Typical symptoms include a rash or ulcers in the mouth, on the inner cheeks, gums, sides of the tongue, and bumps or blisters on the hand, feet and sometimes other parts of the skin which may last seven to 10 days. Seek medical attention if you think you or your child may be affected.

22/02/2021

Australia has an internationally recognised capability to deal quickly and effectively with emergency animal disease outbreaks. In addition, Australia has a good track record of successfully dealing with outbreaks of disease in its animal populations, the most recent example being the large outbreak of equine influenza in 2007. However, an outbreak of FMD could have dimensions significantly greater than anything we have had to deal with in the past.

Australia has in place detailed contingency plans and a comprehensive whole-of-government approach to managing animal health emergencies that are designed to ensure that resources from a wide range of agencies are available. The Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment collaborates with the states and territory authorities to coordinate national responses to animal health emergencies.

Government and industry’s state of preparedness is under continuous review and improvements to the national capability are constantly being implemented. Exercises are held regularly to test plans and train those who would be involved. Reports of suspect cases are used to test the systems already in place.

The degree of success in dealing with an outbreak will depend on the nature and extent of any outbreak. Early detection and reporting of the disease is vital to reduce its spread.

Northern Australia Quarantine Strategy (NAQS) fact sheet on Foot-and-Mouth disease
What plans are in place?
There is a comprehensive range of plans in place to deal with an emergency disease outbreak. These plans are revised and updated on a regular basis as part of continuous improvement processes. The Australian Veterinary Plan or AUSVETPLAN is the central plan for controlling and eradicating an outbreak.

There is also a national relief and recovery coordination framework. This framework sets out roles and responsibilities in dealing with the economic and social impact of a disease outbreak and returning communities to normal after an outbreak.

Individual agencies also have emergency management response plans. For example, the Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment has the Critical Incident Response Plan (CIRP) which details the role of the department in an emergency and the conduct of its response operations.

What systems are in place to quickly identify FMD?
The most important people in identifying and notifying FMD are usually stock owners and others who work with livestock. They should notify suspicious symptoms immediately to their local vet so that appropriate biosecurity arrangements to contain the spread of disease are instigated as quickly as possible.

Australia has an extensive network of both government and private vets who can identify the disease. This network includes 160 people who gained first hand experience of FMD from experience in the United Kingdom in 2001.

Where a vet confirms a suspicion of FMD they will immediately take samples and send these to the Australian Animal Health Laboratory at Geelong for diagnosis. Diagnosis takes 24 hours. Meanwhile the premises will be quarantined and plans activated so the response can be initiated as soon as the results are known.

Has FMD ever occurred in Australia?
Minor outbreaks of possible FMD are believed to have occurred in Australia in 1801, 1804, 1871 and 1872.

What should be done if an outbreak occurs?
If you notice any unusual disease signs, abnormal behaviour or unexplained deaths in your livestock, contact your veterinarian, stock inspector, local Department of Primary Industries/Agriculture, or the Emergency Animal Disease Watch Hotline on 1800 675 888.

Early detection is essential to reduce the potential impact of this disease.

Australia’s response plans call for the rapid detection, diagnosis and eradication of this devastating livestock disease. Eradication would involve detection of infected animals and their humane slaughter and biosecure disposal.​

Are there alternatives to destroying infected animals?
The primary means of eradicating an FMD outbreak is the humane destruction of infected animals. Other measures, such as the control of movement of livestock, are also essential. Vaccination may be an important component of the response.

Australia must make best use of new vaccine and diagnostic technologies to optimise FMD preparedness and response plans.

Report on the potential effects of new technologies on FMD planning and policies
Australia's national foot-and-mouth disease vaccination policy
How are infected animals and products disposed of?
In accordance with Australia’s response plans, infected animals would be humanely destroyed. The carcases and any contaminated products would be buried or burnt. Trials are currently being undertaken to investigate the possibility of composting carcases and contaminated products.

How long will it take to respond to an outbreak once it is detected?
The response will be immediate on receipt of advice of a suspected case. The length of time taken to control and eradicate the disease will depend on how long the virus has been present before it is detected and the degree of spread.

If there is a single point outbreak authorities should be able to isolate and eradicate the disease quickly. If the disease has already taken hold and spread across a state or over borders, it will take much longer.

Early identification and reporting, and the need for vigilance on everyone’s part, are vitally important.

What is the role of the Australian Defence Force in an FMD outbreak?
The Australian Defence Force (ADF) could be called on to assist during an FMD outbreak, as in any emergency, when the necessary resources cannot be obtained elsewhere. For example, the ADF might be asked to assist with transportation, engineering the construction of disposal pits, or logistics management.

What is the role of other agencies and arrangements in an FMD outbreak?
Effective emergency management requires a partnership between all levels of government, the private sector and the community. Other response agencies include health and conservation departments, local government, police, emergency services and volunteer organisations. Australia has access to skilled personnel from overseas through the International Animal Health Emergency Reserve (IAHER), and to specially trained Australian veterinarians through the Australian Veterinary Reserve.

Assessing disease response arrangements
The Australian, state and territory governments, and industry, conduct regular exercises to assess response plans and procedures that will be used to combat disease outbreaks.

In 2014 and 2015 a series of discussion exercises and field activities, called Exercise Odysseus, were held to enhance Australia’s arrangements for implementing a national livestock standstill in the event of a foot-and-mouth disease outbreak.

Information about previous exercises is available on the Emergency Preparedness web page.

Education and awareness
Various campaigns have encouraged farmers to ’look, check, ask a vet’ and report any suspect symptoms to their vet to state or territory department of primary industry.

Over the past few years a lot of information has also been made available about farm biosecurity. Biosecurity has been a long-standing practice amongst larger producers, such as those in intensive livestock industries, but more recently, hobby farmers and those on small rural landholdings have been included in the campaign. See the department’s biosecurity information and Animal Health Australia’s Farm Biosecurity website.

Animal Health Australia holds regular training programs for veterinarians, government staff and industry personnel.

Industry and government liaison
Industry has an active role in the development of disease response plans and will play an important role in any response. Response plans are complemented by the Emergency Animal Disease Response Agreement which defines the roles and responsibilities of participating agencies and ensures that funding arrangements for a response have been pre-agreed. The AUSVETPLAN Control Centres Manual also describes the roles and responsibilities of participants.

22/02/2021

FMD affects cloven-hoofed animals (those with divided hoofs), including cattle, buffalo, camels, sheep, goats, deer and pigs.

How is it transmitted?
FMD is a viral disease that spreads rapidly between animals. Virus is excreted in breath, saliva, mucus, milk and faeces. The virus can be excreted by animals for up to four days before clinical signs appear. Animals can become infected through inhalation, ingestion and direct contact. The disease spreads most commonly through the movement of infected animals. In sheep the symptoms can be absent or very mild, and undetected infected sheep can be an important source of infection. FMD virus can also be spread on wool, hair, grass or straw; by the wind; or by mud or manure sticking to footwear, clothing, livestock equipment or vehicle tyres.

Pigs are regarded as ‘amplifying hosts’ because they can excrete very large quantities of the virus in their exhaled breath. Cattle are very susceptible to, and able to be infected by breathing in small quantities of the virus. In some animals (‘carriers’), the virus can continue to be carried for long periods (months or years) after apparent recovery.

How infectious is it?
FMD spreads rapidly from one animal to another, especially in cool, damp climates and/or when animals are penned or housed closely together. The virus survives well at temperatures below 4 degrees Celsius, but is inactivated as temperatures rise. It is also rapidly inactivated at relative humidity less than 60 per cent.

How does it affect animals?
Although FMD is not very lethal in adult animals, it can kill young animals and cause serious production losses. The clinical signs are fever followed by the appearance of vesicles (fluid-filled blisters) between the toes and on the heels, on mammary glands and especially on the lips, tongue and palate. These vesicles often combine to form large, swollen blisters that erupt to leave raw, painful ulcers that take up to 10 days to heal.

Foot lesions leave animals lame and unable to walk to feed or water. Tongue and mouth lesions are very painful and cause animals to drool and stop eating. Adults usually begin eating again after a few days, but young animals may weaken and die, or be left with foot deformities or damage to the mammary glands.

FMD is important in international trade in animals and animal products, with countries that are free of the disease banning or restricting imports from affected countries. This means an outbreak would have serious economic implications for a major livestock-exporting country like Australia.

Where is the disease found?
It is reported in the Middle East, Africa, Asia and South America. Different strains of virus tend to dominate in different parts of the globe. Most recently, the outbreaks in Japan and Korea were due to FMD serotype O virus.

Is there any treatment or cure?
No. Affected animals will recover. Vaccines can protect against the disease but do not necessarily prevent animals from being infected. Vaccination is used in many countries to control the disease in an endemic situation. In order for a country to regain FMD-free status and limit the economic impacts, it is important to eradicate the virus as quickly as possible. Movement controls and removal of infected animals (along with other complementary control measures such as cleaning and disinfection) are essential to eradicate this disease. Vaccination can be an important tool to assist in containing and eradicating FMD, but its use will have trade implications.